Cambridge International AS and A Level Chemistry Coursebook with CD-ROM

Contents
How to use this book  vi
Chapter 1: Moles and equations  1
Masses of atoms and molecules  2
Accurate relative atomic masses  3
Amount of substance  5
Mole calculations  6
Chemical formulae and chemical equations  10
Solutions and concentration  14
Calculations involving gas volumes  18
Chapter 2: Atomic structure  24
Elements and atoms  25
Inside the atom  25
Numbers of nucleons  28
Isotopes  28
How many protons, neutrons and electrons?  29
Chapter 3: Electrons in atoms  32
Simple electronic structure  33
Evidence for electronic structure  34
Subshells and atomic orbitals  37
Electronic configurations  38
Orbitals and the Periodic Table  40
Patterns in ionisation energies in the
Periodic Table  41
Chapter 4: Chemical bonding  48
Types of chemical bonding  49
Ionic bonding  49
Covalent bonding  51
Shapes of molecules  55
More molecular shapes  56
Metallic bonding  58
Intermolecular forces  60
Hydrogen bonding  64
Bonding and physical properties  66
Chapter 5: States of matter  72
States of matter  73
The gaseous state  73
The liquid state  77
The solid state  78
Simple molecular lattices  80
Carbon nanoparticles  82
Conserving materials  83
Chapter 6: Enthalpy changes  89
What are enthalpy changes?  90
Standard enthalpy changes  92
Measuring enthalpy changes  94
Hess’s law  97
Enthalpy change of reaction from enthalpy
changes of formation  97
Enthalpy change of formation from enthalpy
changes of combustion  98
Calculating the enthalpy change of hydration of an
anhydrous salt  99
Bond energies and enthalpy changes  99
Calculating enthalpy changes using
bond energies  101
Chapter 7: Redox reactions  106
What is a redox reaction?  107
Redox and electron transfer  108
Oxidation numbers  109
Redox and oxidation number  110
Naming compounds  111
From name to formula  112
Balancing chemical equations using oxidation
numbers  112
Chapter 8: Equilibrium  116
Reversible reactions and equilibrium  117
Changing the position of equilibrium  119
Equilibrium expressions and the equilibrium
constant, K c 123
Equilibria in gas reactions: the equilibrium
constant, K p 127
Equilibria and the chemical industry  129
Acid-base equilibria  130
Chapter 9: Rates of reaction  140
Reaction kinetics  141
The effect of concentration on rate of reaction  143
The effect of temperature on rate of reaction  143
Catalysis  144
Enzymes  145
Chapter 10: Periodicity  148
Structure of the Periodic Table  149
Periodicity of physical properties  149
Periodicity of chemical properties  154
iii
Oxides of Period 3 elements  156
Chlorides of Period 3 elements  158
Chapter 11: Group 2  163
Physical properties of Group 2 elements  164
Reactions of Group 2 elements  165
Thermal decomposition of Group 2 carbonates
and nitrates  168
Some uses of Group 2 compounds  169
Chapter 12: Group 17  171
Physical properties of Group 17 elements  172
Reactions of Group 17 elements  173
Reactions of the halide ions  175
Disproportionation  177
Uses of the halogens and their compounds  178
Chapter 13: Nitrogen and sulfur  180
Nitrogen gas  181
Ammonia and ammonium compounds  182
Uses of ammonia and ammonium compounds 183
Sulfur and its oxides  185
Sulfuric acid  185
Chapter 14: Introduction to organic
chemistry  188
Representing organic molecules  189
Functional groups  192
Naming organic compounds  192
Bonding in organic molecules  193
Structural isomerism  194
Stereoisomerism  195
Organic reactions – mechanisms  196
Types of organic reaction  198
Chapter 15: Hydrocarbons  201
The homologous group of alkanes  202
Sources of the alkanes  202
Reactions of alkanes  204
The alkenes  207
Addition reactions of the alkenes  208
Oxidation of the alkenes  210
Addition polymerisation  211
Tackling questions on addition polymers  213
Chapter 16: Halogenoalkanes  217
Nucleophilic substitution reactions  218
Mechanism of nucleophilic substitution in
halogenoalkanes  220
Elimination reactions  222
Uses of halogenoalkanes  222
Chapter 17: Alcohols, esters and carboxylic
acids  225
The homologous series of alcohols  226
Reactions of the alcohols  226
Carboxylic acids  231
Chapter 18: Carbonyl compounds  234
The homologous series of aldehydes and
ketones  235
Preparation of aldehydes and ketones  236
Reduction of aldehydes and ketones  237
Nucleophilic addition with HCN  237
Testing for aldehydes and ketones  238
Reactions to form tri-iodomethane  240
Infra-red spectroscopy  241
Chapter P1: Practical skills 1  246
Review of practical knowledge and
understanding  247
Manipulation, measurement and observation  249
Presentation of data and observations  250
Analysis, conclusions and evaluation  251
Chapter 19: Lattice energy  257
Defining lattice energy  258
Enthalpy change of atomisation and
electron affinity  258
Born–Haber cycles  259
Factors affecting the value of lattice energy  262
Ion polarisation  263
Enthalpy changes in solution  265
Chapter 20: Electrochemistry  273
Redox reactions revisited  274
Electrolysis  275
Quantitative electrolysis  276
Electrode potentials  278
Measuring standard electrode potentials  282
Using E
O —
values  284
Cells and batteries  293
More about electrolysis  295
Chapter 21: Further aspects of equilibria  303
The ionic product of water, K w 304
pH calculations  305
Weak acids – using the acid dissociation
constant, K a 307
Indicators and acid–base titrations  309
Buffer solutions  313
iv
Equilibrium and solubility  316
Partition coefficients  319
Chapter 22: Reaction kinetics  324
Factors affecting reaction rate  325
Rate of reaction  325
Rate equations  330
Which order of reaction?  332
Calculations involving the rate constant, k  334
Deducing order of reaction from raw data  335
Kinetics and reaction mechanisms  338
Catalysis 340
Chapter 23: Entropy and Gibbs free energy 349
Introducing entropy  350
Chance and spontaneous change  350
Calculating entropy changes  354
Entropy and temperature  357
Entropy, enthalpy changes and free energy  357
Gibbs free energy  358
Gibbs free energy calculations  360
Chapter 24: Transition elements  366
What is a transition element?  367
Physical properties of the transition elements  369
Redox reactions  369
Ligands and complex formation  371
Chapter 25: Benzene and its compounds  381
The benzene ring  382
Reactions of arenes  384
Phenol 387
Reactions of phenol  388
Chapter 26: Carboxylic acids and their
derivatives  393
The acidity of carboxylic acids  394
Oxidation of two carboxylic acids  395
Acyl chlorides  396
Chapter 27: Organic nitrogen compounds  400
Amines 401
Formation of amines  402
Amino acids  404
Peptides 405
Reactions of the amides  406
Electrophoresis 407
Chapter 28: Polymerisation  411
Condensation polymerisation  412
Synthetic polyamides  413
Biochemical polymers  414
The importance of hydrogen bonding in DNA  418
Polyesters 421
Designing useful polymers  422
Degradable polymers  425
Polymer deductions  426
Chapter 29: Analytical chemistry  433
Chromatography 434
Proton ( 1 H) nuclear magnetic resonance  439
Carbon-13 NMR spectroscopy 444
Mass spectrometry  446
Chapter 30: Organic synthesis  456
Designing new medicinal drugs  457
Chapter P2: Practical skills 2  464
Written examination of practical skills  465
Planning 465
Analysis, conclusions and evaluation  468
Appendix 1: The Periodic Table of the
Elements  473
Appendix 2: Selected standard electrode
potentials  474
Appendix 3: Qualitative analysis notes  475
Glossary 477
Index 486
Acknowledgements 493
v
Introduction to the examination and changes
to the syllabus
Advice on how to revise for and approach
examinations
Answers to end-of-chapter questions
Recommended resources