Building Construction Materials and Techniques

Cover
Title
Copyright
Brief Contents
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Properties of Construction Materials
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Classification of Engineering Materials
	1.3 Qualities of Construction Materials
		1.3.1 Physical Properties
		1.3.2 Mechanical Properties
		1.3.3 Electrical Properties
		1.3.4 Magnetic Properties
		1.3.5 Chemical Properties
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 2 Building Stones
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Classification of Rocks
		2.2.1 Geological or Genetic Classification
		2.2.2 Physical Classification
		2.2.3 Chemical Classification
	2.3 Properties of Good Building Stones
		2.3.1 Appearance and Colour
		2.3.2 Strength
		2.3.3 Weight
		2.3.4 Hardness and Toughness
		2.3.5 Porosity and Absorption
		2.3.6 Compactness
		2.3.7 Fineness of Grain
		2.3.8 Resistance to Fire
		2.3.9 Durability
		2.3.10 Dressing
	2.4 Types of Building Stones
		2.4.1 Granite
		2.4.2 Basalt and Trap
		2.4.3 Limestone and Chalk
		2.4.4 Sandstone
		2.4.5 Laterite
		2.4.6 Gneiss
		2.4.7 Marble
		2.4.8 Slate
		2.4.9 Gravel
		2.4.10 Quartzite
	2.5 Uses of Common Building Stones
	2.6 Useful Building Stones of India
		2.6.1 Granite
		2.6.2 Sandstone
		2.6.3 Limestone
		2.6.4 Gneiss
		2.6.5 Marble
	2.7 Quarrying of Building Stones
		2.7.1 Quarry Location
		2.7.2 Methods of Quarrying
		2.7.3 Precautions in Handling Explosives
	2.8 Dressing of Stones
	2.9 Durability of Stones
		2.9.1 Deteriorating Agencies of Stones
		2.9.2 Preservation of Stones
	2.10 Selection of Stones for Various Works
		2.10.1 General Building Works
		2.10.2 Buildings Exposed to High Wind
		2.10.3 Buildings in Industrial Areas
		2.10.4 Buildings Exposed to Heat and Fire
		2.10.5 Heavy Engineering Works
		2.10.6 Road Metals and Railway Ballasts
		2.10.7 Facing and Architectural Items
	2.11 Tests on Building Stones
		2.11.1 Field Tests
		2.11.2 Laboratory Tests
	2.12 Artificial Stones
		2.12.1 Types of Artificial Stones
		2.12.2 Advantages of Artificial Stones
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 3 Bricks
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Constituents of Brick Earth
		3.2.1 Functions of Constituents of Brick Earth
		3.2.2 Desirable Chemical Composition of Brick Earth
		3.2.3 Harmful Ingredients in Brick Earth
		3.2.4 Field Testing of Brick Earth
	3.3 Selection of Site for Brick Earth
	3.4 Manufacturing of Bricks
		3.4.1 Preparation of Soil
		3.4.2 Moulding of Bricks
		3.4.3 Drying of Bricks
		3.4.4 Burning of Bricks
	3.5 Qualities of Good Bricks
	3.6 Classification of Building Bricks and Uses
		3.6.1 Quality Classification of Burnt Bricks
		3.6.2 Indian Standard Classification of Burnt Bricks
	3.7 Tests on Bricks
		3.7.1 Compressive Strength Test
		3.7.2 Water Absorption Test
		3.7.3 Efflorescence Test
		3.7.4 Dimensional Tolerance Test
		3.7.5 Hardness Test
		3.7.6 Soundness Test
		3.7.7 Structure Test
	3.8 Types of Bricks
		3.8.1 Specially Shaped Bricks
		3.8.2 Refractory Bricks
		3.8.3 Pressed Bricks
		3.8.4 Sand–lime Bricks
		3.8.5 Heavy-duty Bricks
		3.8.6 Sewer Bricks
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 4 Tiles and Ceramic Materials
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Building Tiles
		4.2.1 Characteristics of a Good Tile
		4.2.2 Types of Tiles
		4.2.3 Manufacture of Tiles
	4.3 Earthenware
	4.3.1 Terra-cotta
	4.3.2 Porcelainware
	4.4 Stoneware
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 5 Lime
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Constituents of Limestone
		5.2.1 Clay
		5.2.2 Soluble Silica
		5.2.3 Magnesium Carbonate
		5.2.4 Alkalis and Metallic Oxides
		5.2.5 Sulphates
		5.2.6 Iron
		5.2.7 Pyrites
	5.3 Properties of Lime
	5.4 Classification of Lime and Their Uses
		5.4.1 General Classification
		5.4.2 Indian Standard Classification
	5.5 Manufacture of Lime
		5.5.1 Collection of Raw Materials
		5.5.2 Burning of Limestone
		5.5.3 Slaking of Burnt Lime
	5.6 Precautions in Handling Lime
	5.7 Storage of Lime
	5.8 Laboratory Testing of Limestones
		5.8.1 Physical Tests
		5.8.2 Chemical Tests
	5.9 Field Testing of Building Lime
		5.9.1 Visual Examination
		5.9.2 Hydrochloric Acid Test
		5.9.3 Ball Test
		5.9.4 Impurity Test
		5.9.5 Plasticity Test
		5.9.6 Workability Test
	5.10 Pozzolanic Materials
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 6 Cement
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Ingredients of Cement and Their Functions
		6.2.1 Lime
		6.2.2 Silica
		6.2.3 Alumina
		6.2.4 Iron Oxide
		6.2.5 Magnesium Oxide
		6.2.6 Sulphur Trioxide
		6.2.7 Alkalis
	6.3 Requirements of Quality Cement
	6.4 Properties of Ordinary Portland Cement
		6.4.1 Physical Properties of Portland Cement
		6.4.2 Chemical Properties of Portland Cement
	6.5 Manufacturing of Ordinary Portland Cement
		6.5.1 Wet Process
		6.5.2 Dry Process
	6.6 Chemical Composition and Hardening of Cement
	6.7 Types of Cements and Their Uses
		6.7.1 Types of Portland Cement
		6.7.2 Other Types of Cements
	6.8 Grades of Ordinary Portland Cement
	6.9 Laboratory Tests on Cement
		6.9.1 Fineness Test
		6.9.2 Consistency Test
		6.9.3 Setting Time Tests
		6.9.4 Strength Test
		6.9.5 Soundness Test
		6.9.6 Tensile Strength Test
		6.9.7 Heat of Hydration Test
		6.9.8 Chemical Composition Test
	6.10 Comparison Between Cement and Lime
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 7 Mortar
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Qualities of Sand for Mortar
	7.3 Qualities of Water for Mortar
	7.4 Functions of Ingredients of Mortar
		7.4.1 Functions of Cementing Materials
		7.4.2 Functions of Fine Aggregates
		7.4.3 Functions of Water
	7.5 Functions of Mortar
	7.6 Properties of Mortar
	7.7 Types of Mortars and Their Uses
		7.7.1 Lime Mortar
		7.7.2 Surkhi Mortar
		7.7.3 Cement Mortar
		7.7.4 Lime–cement Mortar
		7.7.5 Mud Mortar
		7.7.6 Fire-resistant Mortar
		7.7.7 Light-weight Mortar
		7.7.8 Packing Mortar
		7.7.9 Sound-absorbing Mortar
		7.7.10 X-ray Shielding Mortar
	7.8 Preparation of Mortars
		7.8.1 Preparation of Lime Mortar
		7.8.2 Preparation of Cement Mortar
		7.8.3 Preparation of Lime–cement Mortar
	7.9 Selection of Mortar for Different Purposes
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 8 Concrete
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Properties of Cement Concrete
	8.3 Types of Cement Concrete and Uses
		8.3.1 Plain Cement Concrete
		8.3.2 Reinforced Cement Concrete
		8.3.3 Pre-stressed Cement Concrete
		8.3.4 Light-weight Cement Concrete
		8.3.5 Precast Cement Concrete
	8.4 Plain Cement Concrete
		8.4.1 Fresh and Hardened Concrete
		8.4.2 Aggregates
		8.4.3 Water
	8.5 Concrete Chemicals and Applications
		8.5.1 Admixtures
		8.5.2 Construction Chemicals
	8.6 Grades of Cement Concrete
	8.7 Mix Design Concept
		8.7.1 American Concrete Institute (aci) Method of Mix Design
		8.7.2 Bureau of Indian Standards (bis) Method of Mix Design
	8.8 Manufacturing of Concrete
		8.8.1 Proportioning of Concrete
		8.8.2 Batching of Materials
		8.8.3 Mixing of Concrete
		8.8.4 Conveyance of Concrete
		8.8.5 Compaction of Concrete
		8.8.6 Curing of Concrete
	8.9 Finishing
		8.9.1 Formwork Finishes
		8.9.2 Surface Treatment
		8.9.3 Applied Finish
	8.10 Testing of Fresh and Hardened Concrete
		8.10.1 Testing of Fresh Concrete
		8.10.2 Testing of Hardened Concrete
	8.11 Cracks in Concrete
		8.11.1 Plastic Shrinkage Cracks
		8.11.2 Settlement Cracks
		8.11.3 Cracks Due to Bleeding
		8.11.4 Cracks Due to Delayed Concrete Curing
		8.11.5 Cracks Due to Construction Effects
	8.12 Quality Control of Concrete
	8.13 Non-destructive Testing
		8.13.1 Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer
		8.13.2 Frequency Method
		8.13.3 Nuclear Method
		8.13.4 Radioactive Method
		8.13.5 Pullout Test
		8.13.6 Pulse Velocity Method
	8.14 Lime Concrete
		8.14.1 Ingredients of Lime Concrete
		8.14.2 Properties of Lime Concrete
		8.14.3 Preparation of Lime Concrete
		8.14.4 Uses of Lime Concrete
		8.14.5 Precautions
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 9 Precast Concrete Units
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Prefabrication in Construction
	9.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Precast Concrete
		9.3.1 Advantages
		9.3.2 Disadvantages
	9.4 Components of Building
		9.4.1 Modular Co-ordination
		9.4.2 Dimensions of Precast Elements
	9.5 Manufacture of Precast Concrete Elements
		9.5.1 Factory Prefabrication
		9.5.2 Site Prefabrication
		9.5.3 Process of Manufacture
	9.6 Types of Precast Units
		9.6.1 Hollow Concrete Blocks
		9.6.2 Lintel Units
		9.6.3 Door and Window Frames
		9.6.4 Roofing and Flooring Elements
		9.6.5 Precast Shell Units
		9.6.6 Sunshade Unit
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 10
Timber and Industrial Timber Products
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Trees
		10.2.1 Basic Structure of a Tree
		10.2.2 Classification of Trees
		10.2.3 Structure of Exogenous Trees
		10.2.4 Growth of a Tree
		10.2.5 Felling of Trees
	10.3 Classification of Timber
		10.3.1 Classification of Teak
		10.3.2 Classification of Deodar
		10.3.3 Classification of Other Woods
	10.4 Characteristics of Good Timber
		10.4.1 Strength
		10.4.2 Hardness
		10.4.3 Fire-resistant
		10.4.4 Structure
		10.4.5 Elasticity
		10.4.6 Durability
		10.4.7 Defects
		10.4.8 Weight
		10.4.9 Fibres
		10.4.10 Workability
		10.4.11 Colour
		10.4.12 Sound
	10.5 Defects in Timber
		10.5.1 Knots
		10.5.2 Shakes
		10.5.3 Twisted Fibres
		10.5.4 Upset
		10.5.5 Rind Galls
		10.5.6 Wind Cracks
		10.5.7 Sloping Grains
		10.5.8 Presence of Sapwood
	10.6 Conversion
		10.6.1 Ordinary Sawing
		10.6.2 Quarter Sawing
		10.6.3 Tangential Sawing
		10.6.4 Radial or Rift Sawing
	10.7 Seasoning
		10.7.1 Objectives of Seasoning
		10.7.2 Methods of Seasoning
	10.8 Decay of Wood
	10.9 Preservation of Timber
		10.9.1 Requirements for a Good Preservative
		10.9.2 Types of Preservatives
		10.9.3 Preservative Treatment of Timber
	10.10 Testing of Timber
		10.10.1 Tensile Strength Test
		10.10.2 Compressive Strength Test
		10.10.3 Shear Strength Test
		10.10.4 Bending Strength Test
		10.10.5 Moisture Content Test
	10.11 Industrial Timber Products
		10.11.1 Plywood
		10.11.2 Particle Board or Chip Board
		10.11.3 Hard Board
		10.11.4 Fibre Board
		10.11.5 Block Board
		10.11.6 Decorative Laminates
		10.11.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Processed Timber
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 11
Metals and Alloys
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Ferrous Metals
		11.2.1 Iron Ores
		11.2.2 Pig Iron
		11.2.3 Wrought Iron
		11.2.4 Cast Iron
		11.2.5 Steel
		11.2.6 Alloy Steels
	11.3 Non-ferrous Metals
		11.3.1 Aluminium
		11.3.2 Copper
		11.3.3 Lead
		11.3.4 Tin
		11.3.5 Zinc
		11.3.6 Magnesium
		11.3.7 Nickel
	11.4 Non-ferrous Alloys
		11.4.1 Copper Alloys
		11.4.2 Aluminium Alloys
		11.4.3 Magnesium Alloys
		11.4.4 Nickel Alloys
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 12
Surface Finishing Materials
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Paints
		12.2.1 Functions of Paints
		12.2.2 Constituents of an Oil Paint
		12.2.3 Characteristics of a Good Paint
		12.2.4 Types of Paints
	12.3 Varnishes
		12.3.1 Functions of Varnishes
		12.3.2 Constituents of Varnish
		12.3.3 Properties of an Ideal Varnish
		12.3.4 Types of Varnishes
	12.4 Distempers
		12.4.1 Function of Distempers
		12.4.2 Constituents of Distempers
		12.4.3 Properties of Distempers
		12.4.4 Types of Distempers
	12.5 White and Colour Washing
	12.6 Miscellaneous Surface Finishes
		12.6.1 Wallpapering
		12.6.2 Wall Tiling
		12.6.3 Coal Tarring
		12.6.4 Waxing or Wax Polishing
		12.6.5 Wood Oiling
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 13
Other Building Materials
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Asbestos
		13.2.1 Types of Asbestos
		13.2.2 Properties of Asbestos
		13.2.3 Uses of Asbestos
		13.2.4 Products of Asbestos
	13.3 Fly Ash
		13.3.1 Constituents of Fly Ash
		13.3.2 Uses of Fly Ash
	13.4 Gypsum Plaster
		13.4.1 Properties of Gypsum Plaster
		13.4.2 Uses of Gypsum Plaster
	13.5 Bituminous Materials
		13.5.1 Bitumen
		13.5.2 Tar
	13.6 Glass
		13.6.1 Constituents of Glass
		13.6.2 Properties of Glass
		13.6.3 Types and Uses of Glass
	13.7 Plastics
		13.7.1 Types of Plastics and Their Properties
		13.7.2 Uses of Plastics
	13.8 Composite Materials
		13.8.1 Reinforcing Fibres
		13.8.2 Matrix
	13.9 Miscellaneous Materials
		13.9.1 Rubber
		13.9.2 Geosynthetics
		13.9.3 Adhesives
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 14
Planning of Buildings
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Importance of Housing
		14.2.1 Housing Programme
		14.2.2 Priorities in Housing
		14.2.3 National Level Housing Organizations
	14.3 Classification of Buildings
		14.3.1 Occupancy Classification
		14.3.2 Types of Construction Based on Fire-resistance
	14.4 Principles of Planning of Buildings
		14.4.1 Aspect
		14.4.2 Prospect
		14.4.3 Privacy
		14.4.4 Grouping
		14.4.5 Roominess
		14.4.6 Furniture Requirement
		14.4.7 Sanitation
		14.4.8 Flexibility
		14.4.9 Circulation
		14.4.10 Elegance
		14.4.11 Economy
		14.4.12 Practical Considerations
	14.5 Basic Requirements of Building
		14.5.1 Building Line
		14.5.2 Set Back Line
		14.5.3 Covered Area
		14.5.4 Plinth Area
		14.5.5 Floor Area and Floor Area Ratio
		14.5.6 Carpet Area
		14.5.7 Building Height
		14.5.8 Room Height
		14.5.9 Habitable Rooms
		14.5.10 Bathroom
		14.5.11 Water Closet
		14.5.12 Balcony
	14.6 Building Components and Their Functions
		14.6.1 Substructure
		14.6.2 Superstructure
	14.7 Orientation of Building
		14.7.1 Factors Affecting Orientation
		14.7.2 Orientation Criteria Under Indian Conditions
		14.8 Construction Sequence of Residential Building
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 15
Foundations
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Soil Investigation
		15.2.1 Planning the Ground Investigation
		15.2.2 Methods of Exploration
	15.3 Types of Soils
		15.3.1 Residual Soils
		15.3.2 Transported Soils
		15.3.3 Regional Soil Deposits of India
		15.3.4 Re-claimed Soils
	15.4 Bearing Capacity
		15.4.1 Bearing Capacity Criteria
		15.4.2 Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity
		15.4.3 Methods of Determining Bearing Capacity
		15.4.4 Improvement of Bearing Capacity of Soils
	15.5 Functions of Foundations
		15.5.1 Load and Load Distribution
		15.5.2 Stability Requirements
		15.5.3 Settlement Control
		15.5.4 Safety Against Natural Events
		15.5.5 Requirements of Good Foundation
	15.6 Shallow and Deep Foundations
		15.6.1 Types and Suitability of Shallow Foundations
		15.6.2 Types and Suitability of Deep Foundations
		15.6.3 Foundation Under Special Conditions
	15.7 Causes of Foundation Settlement
	15.8 Selection and Design of Simple Foundations
		15.8.1 Selection Procedure
		15.8.2 Design Procedure
		15.8.3 Design of Shallow Foundations
		15.8.4 Design of Piles
	15.9 Excavation for Foundation
		15.9.1 Shallow Excavations with Unsupported Slopes
		15.9.2 Shallow Excavations with Sheeting and Bracing
		15.9.3 Deep Excavations
	15.10 Construction of Foundations for Buildings
		15.10.1 Construction of Spread Footing
		15.10.2 Construction of Combined Footing
		15.10.3 Construction of Continuous Footing
		15.10.4 Construction of Mat Foundation
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 16
Masonry Construction
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Brick Masonry
		16.2.1 Terminology
		16.2.2 Brick Laying Tools
		16.2.3 Materials Used
		16.2.4 Bonds in Brickwork
		16.2.5 Comparison of English and Flemish Bonds
		16.2.6 General Principles of Construction of Brick Masonry
	16.3 Stone Masonry
		16.3.1 Terminology
		16.3.2 Materials Used
		16.3.3 Cutting and Dressing of Stones
		16.3.4 Types of Stone Masonry
		16.3.5 General Principles of Construction of Stone Masonry
		16.3.6 Comparison of Brick and Stone Masonry
	16.4 Concrete Hollow Block Masonry
		16.4.1 Use of Hollow Concrete Blocks for Masonry
		16.4.2 Laying of Concrete Hollow Block Masonry
		16.4.3 Concrete Blocks with Concrete Filling
		16.4.4 Reinforced Concrete Hollow Block Masonry
		16.4.5 Special Features of Concrete Block Masonry
		16.4.6 Compound Walls in Hollow Block
	16.5 Reinforced Brick Masonry
		16.5.1 Reinforced Brick Masonry Walls
		16.5.2 Reinforced Brick Masonry Columns
		16.5.3 Reinforced Brick Masonry Lintel
		16.5.4 Reinforced Brick Masonry Slab
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 17
Walls
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Load-bearing Walls
	17.2.1 Solid Wall
	17.2.2 Solid Wall with Piers or Pilasters
	17.2.3 Cavity Wall
	17.2.4 Faced Wall
	17.2.5 Veneered Wall
	17.3 Non-load Bearing Walls
	17.3.1 Panel Wall
	17.3.2 Partition Wall
	17.3.3 Curtain Wall
	17.3.4 Free-standing Wall
	17.4 Loads on Walls
	17.4.1 Vertical Loads
	17.4.2 Lateral Loads
	17.5 Lateral Supports and Stability
	17.6 Effective Height of Walls
	17.7 Effective Length of Walls
	17.8 Effective Thickness of Walls
	17.9 Slenderness Ratio and Stiffness
	17.10 Reinforced Brick Walls
	17.11 Eccentrically Loaded Brick Wall
	17.11.1 Exterior Walls
	17.11.2 Interior Walls
	17.11.3 Stress Distribution Under Eccentric Loads
	17.12 Cracking in Walls
	17.12.1 Causes
	17.12.2 Preventive Measures
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 18
Framed Structures
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Concept of Framed Structures
		18.2.1 Principles of Framed Structures
		18.2.2 Materials Used for Framed Structures
		18.2.3 Advantages of Framed Structures
	18.3 Tall Buildings
		18.3.1 Advantages of Tall Buildings
		18.3.2 Disadvantages of Tall Buildings
		18.3.3 Construction of Tall Buildings
	18.4 Pre-fabricated Buildings
		18.4.1 Design and Manufacturing
		18.4.2 Delivery and Storage of Pre-fabricated Structures
		18.4.3 Pre-assembly of Pre-fabricated Concrete Structural Units
	18.5 Erection of Pre-fabricated Multi-storey Frame Buildings
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 19
Arches and Lintels
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Arches
		19.2.1 Stability of Arches
		19.2.2 Terminologies in Arch Work
		19.2.3 Types of Arches
		19.2.4 Materials Used for Arches
		19.2.5 Methods of Construction of Arches
	19.3 Lintels
		19.3.1 Purpose of Lintels
		19.3.2 Types of Lintels
	19.4 Plinth Beams and Grade Beams
		19.4.1 Plinth Beams
		19.4.2 Grade Beams
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 20
Doors and Windows
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Technical Terms
	20.3 Doors
		20.3.1 Standard Sizes of Doors
		20.3.2 Materials Used
		20.3.3 Types of Doors
	20.4 Windows
		20.4.1 Window Shutter Movements
		20.4.2 Types of Windows
		20.4.3 Standard Sizes of Windows
	20.5 Ventilators
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 21
Stairs and Elevators
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Components of a Staircase
	21.3 Requirements of a Good Stair
		21.3.1 Location
		21.3.2 Width of Stair
		21.3.3 Pitch of a Stair
		21.3.4 Length of a Flight
		21.3.5 Headroom
		21.3.6 Materials of a Stair
		21.3.7 Landing
		21.3.8 Winder
		21.3.9 Step Proportions
	21.4 Types of Stairs
		21.4.1 Straight Stairs
		21.4.2 Quarter-turn Stairs
		21.4.3 Dog-legged Stairs
		21.4.4 Three-quarter Turn Stairs
		21.4.5 Geometrical Stairs
		21.4.6 Bifurcated Stairs
		21.4.7 Multiple Flight Stairs
	21.5 Materials Used for Stairs
		21.5.1 Timber Stairs
		21.5.2 Stone Stairs
		21.5.3 Brick Stairs
		21.5.4 Steel Stairs
		21.5.5 Concrete Stairs
	21.6 Design Principles of Staircase
		21.6.1 Dead Loads
		21.6.2 Live Loads
		21.6.3 Effective Span of Stairs
		21.6.4 Rise and Tread
		21.6.5 Distribution of Load
	21.7 Ramps
	21.8 Elevators
		21.8.1 Components of an Elevator
		21.8.2 Structural Component of an Elevator
		21.8.3 Types of Elevators
	21.9 Escalators
		21.9.1 Essential Parts of Escalator
		21.9.2 Speed and Slope of Escalator
		21.9.3 Location of Escalator
		21.9.4 Design Aspects of Escalator
		21.9.5 Installation
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 22
Temporary Supporting Structures
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Formwork
	22.2.1 Requirements of Formwork
	22.2.2 Materials Used
	22.3 De-shuttering of Formworks
	22.4 Scaffolding
	22.4.1 Components of Scaffolding
	22.4.2 Requirements of Scaffolding
	22.4.3 Types of Scaffolding
	22.5 Shoring
	22.5.1 Installation of Shoring
	22.5.2 Types of Shoring
	22.6 Underpinning
	22.6.1 Uses of Underpinning
	22.6.2 Precautionary Measures Before Underpinning
	22.6.3 Methods of Underpinning
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 23
Ground and Upper Floors
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Functions of a Floor
	23.3 Selection of Floors
		23.3.1 Ground Floors
		23.3.2 Upper Floors
		23.3.3 Basement Floor
	23.4 Types of Ground Floors
		23.4.1 Stone Floors
		23.4.2 Brick Floors
		23.4.3 Concrete Floors
		23.4.4 Granolithic Floors
		23.4.5 Terrazo Floors
		23.4.6 Mosaic Floors
		23.4.7 Tiled Floors
		23.4.8 Asphalt Floors
		23.4.9 Marble Floors
		23.4.10 Timber Floors
	23.5 Types of Upper Floors
		23.5.1 Timber Floors
		23.5.2 Jack Arch Brick Floors
		23.5.3 Rcc Slab Floors
		23.5.4 Rcc Beam and Slab Floors
		23.5.5 Rcc T-beam Slab Floors
		23.5.6 Flat Slab Floors
		23.5.7 Resilient Floors
		23.5.8 Hollow Block and Rib Floors
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 24
Structural Steel Works
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Steel Sections
		24.2.1 Bars
		24.2.2 Plates
		24.2.3 Flats
		24.2.4 Angle Sections
		24.2.5 Channel Sections
		24.2.6 I and T Sections
		24.2.7 Expanded Metal
		24.2.8 Ribbed Tor Steel Bars
	24.3 Methods of Steel Connections
		24.3.1 Riveted Connections
		24.3.2 Bolt Connections
		24.3.3 Welded Connections
	24.4 Built-up Sections
	24.5 Structural Steel Members
		24.5.1 Steel Trusses
		24.5.2 Steel Beams
		24.5.3 Steel Columns
	24.6 Fabrication of Steel Works
	24.7 Erection of Steel Works
	24.8 Miscellaneous Steel Works
		24.8.1 Fixing of Steel in Wooden Frames
		24.8.2 Fixing of Rolling Shutters
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 25
Roofs and Roof Coverings
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Requirements of a Roof
	25.3 Types of Roofs
	25.4 Sloping Roofs
		25.4.1 Terminologies
		25.4.2 Types of Timber Sloping Roofs
		25.4.3 Types of Steel Sloping Roofs
		25.4.4 Roof Coverings of Sloping Roofs
	25.5 Flat Roofs
		25.5.1 Madras Terrace Roof
		25.5.2 Reinforced Cement Concrete Roof
		25.5.3 Bengal Terrace Roof
		25.5.4 Jack Arch Flat Roof
		25.5.5 Mud Terrace Roof
		25.5.6 Weather-proof Course for Flat Roofs
		25.5.7 Waterproofing of Flat Roofs
		25.5.8 Drainage of Flat Roofs
		25.5.9 Merits and Demerits of Flat Roofs
	25.6 Shell Roofs
		25.6.1 Type of Shell Roofs
		25.6.2 Merits and Demerits of Shell Roofs
		25.6.3 Erection of Prefabricated Concrete Shell Elements
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 26
Building Finishes
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Plastering
		26.2.1 Objects of Plastering
		26.2.2 Requirements of a Good Plaster
		26.2.3 Preparation of Surface for Plastering
		26.2.4 External Finishes
		26.2.5 Tools for Plastering
		26.2.6 Plastering Techniques
		26.2.7 Defects and Remedial Measures in Plastering
	26.3 Pointing
		26.3.1 Mortar for Pointing
		26.3.2 Methods of Pointing
		26.3.3 Types of Pointing
	26.4 Painting
		26.4.1 Preparation of Surfaces
		26.4.2 Application of Coats
	26.5 Varnishing
		26.5.1 Preparation of Surfaces
		26.5.2 Application of Coats
	26.6 White/colour Washing
	26.7 Distempering
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 27
Essential Services in Buildings
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 Plumbing Services
		27.2.1 Plumbing Terms
		27.2.2 Principles of Plumbing Services in Buildings
	27.3 Water Supply
		27.3.1 Design of Water Distribution System
		27.3.2 Water Supply Fittings and Fixtures
		27.3.3 Materials of Water Pipes
	27.4 Drainage of Wastewater and Sewage
		27.4.1 Need for Treatment of Sewage
		27.4.2 Sanitary Fittings and Appliances
		27.4.3 Plumbing System of Drainage
		27.4.4 Layout of Building Drainage
		27.4.5 Pipes for Drainage
		27.4.6 Sludge and Effluent Disposal
	27.5 Electrical Supply
		27.5.1 Single and Three-phase Supply
		27.5.2 Distribution Circuits
		27.5.3 Materials and Devices Used in Wiring
		27.5.4 Wiring of Buildings
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 28
Special Services in Buildings
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Air-conditioning of Buildings
		28.2.1 Purposes of Air-conditioning
		28.2.2 Terminologies
		28.2.3 Classification of Air-conditioning
		28.2.4 Principles of Comfort Air-conditioning
		28.2.5 Systems of Air-conditioning
		28.2.6 Requirement of Air-conditioning Systems
	28.3 Thermal Insulation of Buildings
		28.3.1 Purpose of Thermal Insulation
		28.3.2 Causes for Heat Transfer
		28.3.3 Principles of Thermal Insulation
		28.3.4 Heat Insulation Materials
		28.3.5 Methods of Thermal Insulation
	28.4 Acoustics and Sound Insulation
		28.4.1 Effects of Audible Sound
		28.4.2 Principles of Acoustics
		28.4.3 Acoustical Defects
		28.4.4 Acoustical Materials
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 29
Protection of Buildings
	29.1 Introduction
	29.2 Anti-termite Treatment
		29.2.1 Termites
		29.2.2 Principles of Termite-proofing
		29.2.3 Methods of Termite-proofing
	29.3 Damp Prevention
		29.3.1 Sources of Dampness
		29.3.2 Effects of Dampness
		29.3.3 Methods of Damp-proofing
		29.3.4 Dpc Treatment in Buildings
		29.3.5 Materials Used for Dpc
		29.3.6 Damp-proof Surface Treatment
		29.3.7 Integral Damp-proofing Treatment
	29.4 Fire Protection
		29.4.1 Fire-resisting Properties of Building Materials
		29.4.2 Fire-load
		29.4.3 Bis Grading
		29.4.4 General Safety Requirements Against Fire
		29.4.5 Emergency Fire Safety Measures
	29.5 Protection from Lightning
	29.6 Earthquake-resistant Buildings
		29.6.1 Causes of Earthquakes
		29.6.2 Magnitude of Earthquake
		29.6.3 Seismic Zones of India
		29.6.4 Effects of Earthquake on Structures
		29.6.5 General Requirement
		29.6.6 Major Design Considerations
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 30
Preventive Measures and Maintenance of Buildings
	30.1 Introduction
	30.2 Maintenance of Floorings
		30.2.1 Terrazzo Floors
		30.2.2 Marble Floors
		30.2.3 Linoleum Floors
		30.2.4 Concrete Floors
		30.2.5 Other Floors
	30.3 Maintenance of Doors and Windows
		30.3.1 Maintenance of Woodwork
		30.3.2 Maintenance of Glass
	30.4 Maintenance of Water Supply System
	30.5 Maintenance of Sanitary Appliances
	30.6 Maintenance of Drainage System
		30.6.1 Fittings Inside the Buildings
		30.6.2 Waste and Soil Pipes
		30.6.3 Gulley and Manholes
		30.6.4 Roof Drainage System
		30.6.5 Septic Tanks
	30.7 Maintenance of Paintwork
	30.8 Maintenance of Brickwork
		30.8.1 Cleaning Brickwork
		30.8.2 Removal of Efflorescence in Brickwork
		30.8.3 Repairing of Cracks in Brickwork
		30.8.4 Re-pointing Old Brickwork
		30.8.5 Re-painting Brickwork
	30.9 Maintenance of Stonework
		30.9.1 Removal of Efflorescence in Stonework
		30.9.2 Removal of Stains in Stonework
		30.9.3 Repair of Cracks in Stonework
		30.9.4 Waterproofing of Stonework
	30.10 Cracks and Remedial Measures in Concrete
		30.10.1 Causes of Cracks in Concrete
		30.10.2 Preventive Measures for Crack in Concrete
		30.10.3 Stitching of Cracks in Concrete Members
		30.10.4 Repair of Concrete by Gunite and Shortcrete
	30.11 Checking Building Leakage
		30.11.1 Leakage in Sloping Roofs
		30.11.2 Leakage of Flat Roofs
		30.11.3 Leakage Through Junction of Walls and Sunshades
		30.11.4 Leakage Through Wall Cracks
	30.12 Maintenance of Electrical System
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 31
Construction Planning and Scheduling
	31.1 Introduction
	31.2 Objectives of Planning
	31.3 Stages of Plannning
		31.3.1 Job Planning
		31.3.2 Technical Planning
		31.3.3 Contract Planning
		31.3.4 Advantages and Limitations of Planning
	31.4 Scheduling Procedures
		31.4.1 Construction Schedule
		31.4.2 Labour Schedule
		31.4.3 Material Schedule
		31.4.4 Equipment Schedule
		31.4.5 Expenditure Schedule
	31.5 Scheduling Techniques
		31.5.1 Bar Charts
		31.5.2 Milestone Charts
		31.5.3 Network Analysis
	31.6 Site Clearance
	31.7 Job Layout
	31.8 Temporary Sheds
	31.9 Setting Out Works
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Chapter 32
Construction Equipment
	32.1 Introduction
	32.2 Cost of Equipment
	32.2.1 Procurement Cost
	32.2.2 Operating Cost
	32.3 Types of Equipment
		32.3.1 Earthwork Equipment
		32.3.2 De-watering Equipment
		32.3.3 Compaction Equipment
		32.3.4 Pile Driving Equipment
		32.3.5 Movement and Hosting Equipment
		32.3.6 Hauling Equipment
	Salient Points
	Review Questions
Objective Type Questions and Answers
Bibliography
Index