Blast Furnace Ironmaking: Analysis, Control, and Optimization

Cover
Blast Furnace Ironmaking: Analysis, Control, and
Optimization
Copyright
Author Biography
Preface
Acknowledgments
	Anqi Cai, McGill University
	Ted Lyon, Managing Director—Bulk Metals, Hatch Ltd.
	Contributing authors
	Susanne Crago, Chameleon Graphics
	William Dixon, Denzel Guye, Sabrina Lao, and Max (Shuhong) Shen, all from McGill University
	Other Contributors
1 The Iron Blast Furnace Process
	1.1 Introduction to the Blast Furnace Process
	1.2 Blast Furnace Raw Materials
		1.2.1 Top-Charged Materials
		1.2.2 Charging Methods
		1.2.3 Tuyere-Injected Materials
	1.3 Products From the Blast Furnace
		1.3.1 Molten Iron
		1.3.2 Molten Slag
			1.3.2.1 Slag Uses
		1.3.3 Top Gas
	1.4 Blast Furnace Operations
		1.4.1 Pressure
		1.4.2 Principle Chemical Reactions
		1.4.3 Main Thermal Processes
		1.4.4 Blast Furnace Information
		1.4.5 Production Statistics
		1.4.6 Campaign Life
	1.5 Costs
		1.5.1 Investment (Capital) Costs
		1.5.2 Operating Costs
		1.5.3 Maintenance and Relining Costs
	1.6 Safety
	1.7 Environment
	1.8 Summary
	Exercises
	References
	Suggested Reading
2 Inside the Blast Furnace
	2.1 Blast Furnace Ironmaking—A Look Inside the Furnace
	2.2 Physical Behavior: Solids Descend
	2.3 Physical Behavior: Blast Air and Gas Ascend
	2.4 Reactions in the Blast Furnace Hearth Zone
		2.4.1 Hearth Reactions
	2.5 Reactions in Front and Around the Tuyeres
		2.5.1 The Raceway Zone
	2.6 Above the Raceway Zone
	2.7 Fusion and Melting Zone
		2.7.1 Final Melting
	2.8 Reactions Above the Fusion Zone
	2.9 Kinetics of Coke Gasification
	2.10 Reactions Above the 930°C Isotherm
	2.11 Reduction of Magnetite (Fe3O4) to Wustite (Fe0.947O)
	2.12 Steady-State Wustite (Fe0.947O) Production and Consumption
		2.12.1 Thermal Reserve Zone—Evidence and Explanation
	2.13 Hematite (Fe2O3) Reduction Zone
		2.13.1 Industrial Top Gas Composition
	2.14 Chemical and Heat Transfer in the Blast Furnace
	2.15 Residence Times
	2.16 Summary
	Exercises
	References
	Suggested Reading
3 Making Steel From Molten Blast Furnace Iron
	3.1 Blast Furnace Iron
	3.2 Steel
	3.3 Steelmaking Steps
	3.4 Sulfur Removal
	3.5 Oxygen Steelmaking
		3.5.1 Nitrogen Avoidance
		3.5.2 Molten Slag
		3.5.3 Process Steps
	3.6 Additions to the Final Liquid Steel
	3.7 Ultralow Phosphorus Steel
	3.8 Ladle Metallurgy Furnace
	3.9 Degassing
	3.10 Continuous Casting
		3.10.1 Start Casting
		3.10.2 The Copper Mold and Its Oscillation
		3.10.3 Mold Powder
	3.11 The Cast Product
	3.12 Summary
	Exercises
	References
4 Introduction to the Blast Furnace Mass Balance
	4.1 Developing Steady-State Mass Balances for the Blast Furnace
	4.2 Mathematical Development
	4.3 Steady-State Mass Balance Equations
		4.3.1 Fe Mass Balance Equation
		4.3.2 Oxygen Balance Equation
		4.3.3 Carbon Balance Equation
		4.3.4 Nitrogen Balance Equation
	4.4 Additional Specifications
		4.4.1 Blast Air Composition Specification
		4.4.2 1000kg of Fe in Product Molten Iron Specification
	4.5 Equation Shortage
	4.6 A Useful Calculation
	4.7 Top Gas Composition
	4.8 Magnetite (Fe3O4) Ore Charge
	4.9 Addition of a New Variable: Carbon in Product Molten Iron
	4.10 Summary
	Exercises
5 Introduction to the Blast Furnace Enthalpy Balance
	5.1 The Enthalpy Balance
	5.2 Input and Output Enthalpies
	5.3 Enthalpy of Mixing Fe (ℓ) + C(s)
	5.4 Conductive, Convective, and Radiative Heat Losses
	5.5 Numerical Values and Final Enthalpy Equations
	5.6 Summary
	Exercises
	References
6 Combining Mass and Enthalpy Balance Equations
	6.1 Developing a Predictive Blast Furnace Model - Initial Steps
	6.2 Benefit of including enthalpy
	6.3 Effect of Blast Temperature on Blast Air Requirement
	6.4 Altered Enthalpy Equation
	6.5 Altered O2(g) and N2(g) Enthalpy Values
	6.6 Discussion
	6.7 Summary
	Exercises
7 Conceptual Division of the Blast Furnace - Bottom Segment Calculations
	7.1 Dividing the Blast Furnace Into Two Segments
	7.2 Conditions in the Chemical Reserve
	7.3 Bottom Segment Inputs and Outputs
	7.4 Bottom Segment Calculations
	7.5 Steady-State Mass Balance Equations
		7.5.1 Fe Mass Balance Equation
		7.5.2 Oxygen Mass Balance Equation
		7.5.3 Carbon Mass Balance Equation
		7.5.4 Nitrogen Mass Balance Equation
	7.6 Additional Specifications from Chapter 4
	7.7 Additional Chemical Reserve Gas Composition Specification
	7.8 Bottom Segment Enthalpy Balance
	7.9 Numerical Values and Final Enthalpy Equation
	7.10 Bottom Segment Matrix and Results
	7.11 Analysis of Results
		7.11.1 Fe
		7.11.2 C
		7.11.3 O
		7.11.4 N
		7.11.5 CO2/CO Mass Ratio
	7.12 C-in-Coke Entering Bottom Segment=C-in-Blast Furnace’s Coke Charge
	7.13 Effect of Blast Temperature on Carbon and Oxygen Requirements
		7.13.1 Results
	7.14 Discussion
	7.15 Summary
	Exercises
	References
8 Bottom Segment with Pulverized Carbon Injection
	8.1 The Importance of Injecting Hydrocarbon Fuel Through Blast Furnace Tuyeres
	8.2 Pulverized Carbon C-in-Coal Injection
	8.3 Carbon Injection Calculations
		8.3.1 Injected Carbon Specification
		8.3.2 Bottom Segment Carbon Balance
		8.3.3 Bottom Segment Enthalpy Balance Equation
	8.4 Matrix With C-in-Coal Through Tuyere Injection
	8.5 Effect of Pulverized C Injection on Descending C-in-Coke Requirement
	8.6 Discussion
	8.7 Coke Replacement Ratio
		8.7.1 Replacement Ratio Explanation
	8.8 Total Carbon Requirement
	8.9 Blast Air O2 and N2 Requirements
	8.10 Summary
	Exercises
	References
9 Bottom Segment With Oxygen Enrichment of Blast Air
	9.1 Benefits of Injecting Pure Oxygen With the Blast Air
	9.2 Oxygen Injection Calculations
		9.2.1 Injected Oxygen Quantity
		9.2.2 Injected O2 in the Oxygen Mass Balance
		9.2.3 Enthalpy Balance With Injected Pure Oxygen
	9.3 Calculation Results
	9.4 Carbon Requirement
	9.5 Summary
	Exercises
10 Bottom Segment With Low Purity Oxygen Enrichment
	10.1 The Benefits of Using Impure Oxygen
	10.2 Required Changes to Matrix (Table 9.1)
	10.3 Specified Mass O2 in Injected Impure Oxygen
	10.4 Slightly Changed Oxygen Balance Equation
	10.5 Mass N2 in Injected Impure Oxygen
	10.6 Nitrogen Balance
	10.7 Enthalpy Balance
	10.8 Results
	10.9 Summary
	Exercise
11 Bottom Segment with CH4(g) Injection
	11.1 Natural Gas Injection
	11.2 CH4(g) Injection Equations
		11.2.1 Injected CH4(g) Quantity Equation
		11.2.2 Steady-State Hydrogen Balance
		11.2.3 Amended Carbon Balance
		11.2.4 Amended Steady-State Oxygen Balance
		11.2.5 Amended Enthalpy Balance
	11.3 Equilibrium Mass (mass H2O(g)/mass H2(g)) Ratio
	11.4 Matrix and Calculation Results
	11.5 Effect of Injected CH4(g) on Bottom-Segment C-in-Coke Requirement
	11.6 Effect of Injected CH4(g) on O2-in-Blast Requirement
	11.7 Effect of Injected CH4(g) on N2-in-Blast Air Requirement
	11.8 Comparison of C and CH4(g) Injection
	11.9 Summary
	Exercises
12 Bottom Segment With Moisture in Blast Air
	12.1 The Importance of Steam Injection for Blast Furnace Control
	12.2 H2O(g) Through-Tuyere Quantity Equation
	12.3 H2O(g) Concentration, kg H2O(g) per kg of Dry Air in Blast
	12.4 Through-Tuyere H2O(g) Input Quantity Equation
	12.5 Steady-State Bottom-Segment Hydrogen Balance
	12.6 Amended Bottom-Segment Carbon Balance
	12.7 Amended Steady-State Oxygen Balance
	12.8 Amended Steady-State Enthalpy Balance
	12.9 Matrix and Calculations
	12.10 Effect of H2O(g) Concentration on Steady-State Through-Tuyere H2O(g) Input
	12.11 Effect of H2O(g) Concentration on Steady-State Carbon Requirement
	12.12 Explanation
	12.13 Summary
	Exercises
13 Bottom Segment With Pulverized Hydrocarbon Injection
	13.1 Understanding Coal Injection
	13.2 Calculation Strategy
	13.3 Coal Hydrocarbon Injected Quantity Specification
	13.4 Bottom Segment Steady-State Mass Balance
	13.5 Bottom Segment Steady-State Enthalpy Balance
	13.6 Calculation Results and Comparison With Pulverized Pure Carbon Injection
	13.7 Summary
	Exercises
	Reference
14 Raceway Flame Temperature
	14.1 The Importance of Tuyere Raceway Flame Temperature
	14.2 Tuyere Raceways
	14.3 Raceway Flame Temperature
	14.4 Raceway Temperature Defined
	14.5 Calculation of Raceway Flame Temperature (No Tuyere Injectant)
	14.6 Raceway Input Equations
	14.7 Raceway Mass Balances
		14.7.1 Oxygen Mass Balance Equation
		14.7.2 Raceway Nitrogen Mass Balance Equation
		14.7.3 Raceway Carbon Balance Equation
	14.8 Calculation of Raceway Masses
	14.9 Raceway Input Enthalpy Calculation
	14.10 Raceway Output Enthalpy
	14.11 Calculation of Raceway Flame Temperature From Total Output Enthalpy
	14.12 Numerical Calculation
	14.13 Summary
	Exercises
15 Automating Matrix Calculations
	15.1 Combining/Automating Blast Furnace Matrices
	15.2 Equations in Cells
	15.3 Carrying Numerical Values Forward
	15.4 Forwarding Raceway Matrix Masses to the Raceway Input Enthalpy Calculation
		15.4.1 Forwarding Blast O2 and N2 Enthalpies
	15.5 Raceway Output Enthalpy
	15.6 Forwarding to Our Flame Temperature Calculation
	15.7 Blast Temperature’s Effect on Raceway Flame Temperature
	15.8 An Unexpected Benefit
		15.8.1 Explanation
	15.9 Summary
	Exercises
16 Raceway Flame Temperature With Pulverized Carbon Injection
	16.1 Impact of Pulverized Carbon Injection on Raceway Flame Temperature
	16.2 Matrix Setup
	16.3 Raceway Injectant Quantity Specification
	16.4 Raceway O2-in-Blast Air Input Specification
	16.5 Raceway N2-in-Blast Air Input Specification
	16.6 Raceway Carbon Balance Equation With Pulverized C Injection
	16.7 Oxygen and Nitrogen Balances
	16.8 Raceway Matrix Results
	16.9 Input Enthalpy Calculation
		16.9.1 Automated Input Enthalpy Calculation
	16.10 Raceway Output Enthalpy
	16.11 Raceway Flame Temperature Calculation
	16.12 Effect of C Injection on Raceway Flame Temperature
	16.13 Summary
	Exercise
17 Raceway Flame Temperature With Oxygen Enrichment
	17.1 Benefits of Oxygen Enrichment and Impact on Raceway Flame Temperature
	17.2 Matrix Setup
	17.3 Raceway Pure Oxygen Quantity Specification
	17.4 Raceway O2-in-Blast Air Input Specification
	17.5 Raceway N2-in-Blast Air Specification
	17.6 Raceway O Balance With Pure Oxygen Injection
	17.7 Raceway Carbon Balance
	17.8 Raceway Nitrogen Balance Equation
	17.9 Raceway Matrix Results
	17.10 Raceway Input Enthalpy Calculation
		17.10.1 Automated Input Enthalpy Calculation
	17.11 Automated Raceway Output Enthalpy
	17.12 Raceway Output Gas (Flame) Temperature
	17.13 Effect of Pure Oxygen Injection on Raceway Flame Temperature
	17.14 Summary
	Exercise
18 Raceway Flame Temperature With CH4(g) Injection
	18.1 Understanding The Impact of CH4(g) Injection on Raceway Adiabatic Flame Temperature
	18.2 Matrix Setup
	18.3 Raceway Input CH4(g) Specification
	18.4 Raceway O2-in-Blast Air Input Specification
	18.5 Raceway N2-in-Blast Air Specification
	18.6 Modified Raceway Carbon Balance Equation
	18.7 Raceway Oxygen Balance Equation
	18.8 New Hydrogen Balance Equation
	18.9 Raceway Nitrogen Balance Equation
	18.10 Raceway Matrix Results and Flame Temperature Calculation
	18.11 Raceway Input Enthalpy Calculation
	18.12 Raceway Output Enthalpy
	18.13 Raceway Output Gas (Flame) Temperature
	18.14 Effect of CH4(g) Injection on Raceway Flame Temperature
	18.15 Summary
	Exercises
19 Raceway Flame Temperature With Moisture in Blast Air
	19.1 Moisture in the Blast Air and Its Impact on RAFT
	19.2 Modifying the Bottom Segment and Raceway Matrices
	19.3 Raceway H2O(g) Input Quantity Specification
	19.4 Raceway O2-in-Blast Air Input Specification
	19.5 Raceway Input N2-in-Blast Air Specification
	19.6 Modified Raceway Carbon Balance Equation
	19.7 Modified Raceway Oxygen Balance Equation
	19.8 Modified Raceway Hydrogen Balance Equation
	19.9 Raceway Nitrogen Balance Equation
	19.10 Raceway Matrix Results and Flame Temperature Calculation
	19.11 Raceway Input Enthalpy Calculation
	19.12 Raceway Output Enthalpy
	19.13 Raceway Output Gas (Flame) Temperature
	19.14 Calculation Results
	19.15 Discussion
	19.16 Summary
	Exercises
20 Top Segment Mass Balance
	20.1 Combining the Bottom and Top Segments of the Blast Furnace
	20.2 Top-Segment Calculations
	20.3 Mass Balance Equations
		20.3.1 Fe Mass Balance Equation
		20.3.2 Oxygen Mass Balance Equation
		20.3.3 Carbon Mass Balance Equation
		20.3.4 Nitrogen Mass Balance Equation
	20.4 Quantity Specification Equations
	20.5 No Carbon Oxidation in the Top Segment
	20.6 Top Gas Results
	20.7 Coupling Top and Bottom-Segment Calculations
	20.8 Summary
	Exercises
21 Top-Segment Enthalpy Balance
	21.1 Top-Segment Enthalpy Balance
	21.2 Top-Segment Input Enthalpy
	21.3 Top-Segment Output Enthalpy
	21.4 Calculated Values
	21.5 Summary
	Exercises
	Reference
22 Top Gas Temperature Calculation
	22.1 Calculating Top Gas Temperature
	22.2 Top Gas Enthalpy
	22.3 Top Gas Temperature
	22.4 Calculation
	22.5 Effect of Blast Temperature on Top Gas Temperature
	22.6 Summary
	Exercises
	Reference
23 Top Segment Calculations With Pulverized Carbon Injection
	23.1 Impact of Pulverized Carbon Injection on the Top Segment
	23.2 Cross-Division Flows With Pulverized Carbon Injection
	23.3 Top-Segment Calculations
	23.4 Summary
	Exercises
	Reference
24 Top Segment Calculations With Oxygen Enrichment
	24.1 Impact of Blast Oxygen Enrichment on the Top Segment and Top Gas Conditions
	24.2 Cross-Division Flows With Pure Oxygen Injection
	24.3 Top-Segment Calculations
	24.4 Summary
	Exercises
	Reference
25 Top Segment Mass Balance With CH4(g) Injection
	25.1 Impact of Methane CH4(g) Injection on Top Gas
	25.2 Cross-Division Flows With CH4(g) Injection
	25.3 Top-Segment Calculations
		25.3.1 Top-Segment Hydrogen Balance Equation
		25.3.2 Altered Top-Segment Oxygen Balance Equation
	25.4 H2/CO Reduction Ratio Equation
	25.5 With 60kg of CH4(g) Tuyere Injectant
	25.6 Top-Segment Matrix and Calculated Top Gas Values
	25.7 Full Spreadsheet Automation
	25.8 Calculation Results
	25.9 Summary
	Exercises
26 Top Segment Enthalpy Balance with CH4(g) Injection
	26.1 Estimating Top Gas Enthalpy With H2(g) and H2O(g) Present
	26.2 Top-Segment Input Enthalpy
	26.3 Top-Segment Output Enthalpy
	26.4 Top Gas Enthalpy
	26.5 Summary
	Exercises
27 Top Gas Temperature with CH4(g) Injection
	27.1 Top Gas Temperature
	27.2 Calculation of Top Gas Temperature
	27.3 Calculation
	27.4 Results
	27.5 Summary
	Exercises
	Reference
28 Top-Segment Calculations With Moisture in Blast Air
	28.1 Incorporating Blast Moisture Into Top-Segment Balances
	28.2 Bottom-Segment Results
	28.3 Top-Segment Calculations
	28.4 Top Gas Temperature Results
	28.5 Summary
	Exercises
	Reference
29 Bottom Segment Calculations With Natural Gas Injection
	29.1 Replacing Tuyere Injection of CH4(g) With Natural Gas Injection
	29.2 Comparison of CH4(g) and Real Natural Gas
	29.3 Natural Gas Injection Equations
		29.3.1 Injected Natural Gas Quantity Equation
		29.3.2 Amended Hydrogen Balance Equation
		29.3.3 Amended Carbon Balance Equation
		29.3.4 Amended Oxygen Balance Equation
		29.3.5 Amended Nitrogen Balance Equation
		29.3.6 Amended Enthalpy Balance Equation
	29.4 Results
	29.5 C-in-Coke Replacement by Natural Gas of Appendix Q
	29.6 Summary
	Exercises
30 Raceway Flame Temperature With Natural Gas Injection
	30.1 The Impact of Natural Gas Injection on Raceway Flame Temperature
	30.2 Adapting the CH4(g) Raceway Matrix to Natural Gas
	30.3 Adapting the Raceway Enthalpy and Flame Temperature Calculations to Natural Gas
	30.4 Results
	30.5 Summary
	Exercises
31 Top-Segment Calculations With Natural Gas Injection
	31.1 Top Gas Temperature With Natural Gas
	31.2 Starting Our Top Gas Temperature Calculations
	31.3 Top-Segment Matrix
	31.4 Top-Segment Enthalpy and Top Gas Equations
	31.5 Results
	31.6 Discussion
	31.7 Summary
	Exercises
32 Bottom-Segment Slag Calculations - Ore, Fluxes, and Slag
	32.1 Molten Oxide Blast Furnace Slag
		32.1.1 Inadvertent Slag Production
		32.1.2 Other Slag Functions
		32.1.3 Chapter Objectives
	32.2 Inputs and Outputs
	32.3 1000kg of Fe in Product Molten Iron Specification
	32.4 A Mass SiO2 Specification Equation
	32.5 SiO2 Descending Into the Bottom Segment
		32.5.1 Mass SiO2 in Product Molten Slag
	32.6 Masses of Al2O3, CaO, and MgO in Molten Slag
	32.7 Bottom-Segment Mass Balances and Input SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, and MgO Masses
	32.8 Bottom-Segment Enthalpy Balance Equation
	32.9 Matrix and Calculations
	32.10 Results
	32.11 Summary
	Exercises
33 Bottom-Segment Slag Calculations-With Excess Al2O3 in Ore
	33.1 Understanding How to Remove Al2O3 in Iron Ore to Slag
	33.2 Al2O3-in-Ore Specification
	33.3 Masses of SiO2, CaO, and MgO in Molten Slag
	33.4 Bottom-Segment Mass Balances
	33.5 Bottom-Segment Enthalpy Balance
	33.6 Matrix and Calculations
	33.7 Discussion
	33.8 More Complex Calculations
	33.9 Summary
	Exercise
34 Bottom-Segment Slag Calculations
	34.1 Coke Ash Contribution to Blast Furnace Slag
	34.2 New Variables
	34.3 Al2O3 in Descending Coke Equation
	34.4 SiO2 in Descending Coke Equation
	34.5 Altered Bottom-Segment Al2O3 and SiO2 Mass Balances
	34.6 Altered Enthalpy Balance
	34.7 Matrix and Calculations
	34.8 Results
	34.9 Summary
	Exercises
35 Bottom-Segment Calculations - Reduction of SiO2
	35.1 Silica Reduction
	35.2 Calculation Strategy
	35.3 C- and Si-in-Iron Specification Equations
		35.3.1 Mass Si in Product Molten Iron Equation
	35.4 Bottom-Segment Steady-State SiO2 Balance Equation
	35.5 Bottom-Segment Oxygen Balance
	35.6 Bottom-Segment Enthalpy Equation
	35.7 Matrix and Calculation Results
		35.7.1 Flux Requirements
	35.8 Summary
	Exercises
36 Bottom-Segment Calculations - Reduction of MnO
	36.1 Manganese and Blast Furnace Operations
	36.2 Specifications
	36.3 Calculation Strategy
	36.4 C-in-Molten Iron Specification Equation
		36.4.1 Si-in-Molten Iron Specification Equation
		36.4.2 Mn-in-Molten Iron Specification
	36.5 Bottom-Segment Steady-State Mn Mass Balance
	36.6 Bottom-Segment MnO Reduction Efficiency
	36.7 Bottom-Segment Oxygen Balance With Descending MnO
	36.8 Bottom-Segment Enthalpy Equation
		36.8.1 Descending MnO Enthalpy
		36.8.2 MnO-in-Product Molten Slag
		36.8.3 Enthalpy of Dissolved Mn
	36.9 Matrix Calculations and Results
	36.10 Summary
	Exercises
37 Bottom-Segment Calculations With Pulverized Coal Injection
	37.1 Pulverized Coal Injection
	37.2 Coal Elemental Composition
	37.3 Coal Enthalpy
	37.4 Calculation Strategy
	37.5 Injected Coal Quantity Specification
	37.6 Mass H2O(g)/Mass H2(g) Equilibrium Ratio
	37.7 New Hydrogen Balance Equation
	37.8 Altered Bottom-Segment Steady-State C, N, O, Al2O3, and SiO2 Mass Balances
		37.8.1 Carbon Balance
		37.8.2 Oxygen Balance
		37.8.3 Nitrogen Balance
	37.9 Altered Al2O3 and SiO2 Mass Balances
		37.9.1 Al2O3 Balance
		37.9.2 SiO2 Balance
	37.10 Altered Enthalpy Balance
	37.11 Matrix and Calculations
	37.12 Results
		37.12.1 Coke and O2-in-Blast Air Requirements
	37.13 Flux Requirements
		37.13.1 Total SiO2 Input
		37.13.2 CaO Flux Requirement
	37.14 MgO and Al2O3-in-Flux Requirements
		37.14.1 MnO Requirement
	37.15 Summary
	Exercises
	Reference
38 Bottom-Segment Calculations With Multiple Injectants
	38.1 Using Multiple Injectants in Blast Furnace Ironmaking
	38.2 Adding Pure Oxygen Injection to Matrix Table 37.3
		38.2.1 Inserting Oxygen Quantity Specification Eq. (9.1)
		38.2.2 Amended Oxygen Mass Balance
		38.2.3 Amended Enthalpy Balance
	38.3 Adding Through-Tuyere Input H2O(g)
		38.3.1 O Balance
		38.3.2 H Balance
		38.3.3 Enthalpy Balance
	38.4 Including Natural Gas Injection in Matrix Table 38.1
		38.4.1 O Balance
		38.4.2 H Balance
		38.4.3 N Balance
		38.4.4 C Balance
		38.4.5 Enthalpy Balance
	38.5 Leaving Room for Other Injectants
	38.6 Matrix Results
	38.7 Discussion
		38.7.1 Steady-State Coke Requirement
		38.7.2 Dry Air Requirement
	38.8 Summary
	Exercises
	References
39 Raceway Flame Temperature With Multiple Injectants
	39.1 Calculating the Raceway Flame Temperature With Tuyere Injectants
	39.2 Raceway Matrix
		39.2.1 Mass of Al2O3 in Falling Coke Particles
		39.2.2 Mass of SiO2 in Falling Coke Particles
	39.3 Calculation of Raceway Input Enthalpy, Output Enthalpy, and Flame Temperature
		39.3.1 Raceway Output Enthalpy
		39.3.2 Flame Temperature Calculation
	39.4 Results
	39.5 List of Raceway Equations of This Chapter in Table 39.2
	39.6 Summary
	Exercises
	Reference
40 Top-Segment Calculations With Multiple Injectants
	40.1 Understanding the Top Segment With Multiple Injectants
	40.2 Top-Segment Equations With Gangue, Ash, Fluxes, and Slag Plus Injection of Coal, Oxygen, H2O(g), and Natural Gas
	40.3 Top-Segment Input Enthalpy
	40.4 Top-Segment Output Enthalpy
	40.5 Top Gas Enthalpy
	40.6 Top Gas Temperature
	40.7 Results
	40.8 List of Top-Segment Equations of Table 40.2
	40.9 Matching the Model to Commercial Blast Furnace Data
	40.10 Summary
	Exercises
	Reference
41 Top-Segment Calculations with Raw Material Moisture
	41.1 Accounting for Moisture in the Charge Materials
	41.2 H2O(ℓ) Quantity Equation
	41.3 Output H2O(g) Quantity Specification
	41.4 Top-Segment Input Enthalpy
	41.5 Top-Segment Output Enthalpy
	41.6 Top Gas Enthalpy
	41.7 Top Gas Temperature
		41.7.1 Calculation Result
	41.8 Summary
	Exercises
42 Top Segment With Carbonate Fluxes
	42.1 Understanding the Impact of Carbonate Fluxes on the Blast Furnace Process
	42.2 Amended Top-Segment Variables and Equations for Carbonates
	42.3 New Variable and Its Associated Equation for Carbonates
	42.4 Amended Top-Segment Input Enthalpy Equation With Carbonates Added
	42.5 Top-Segment Output Enthalpy With Carbonates Added
	42.6 Top Gas Enthalpy
	42.7 Top Gas Temperature
	42.8 Results
	42.9 Summary
	Exercises
43 Top-Charged Scrap Steel
	43.1 Adding Fe-Rich Solids to the Blast Furnace
	43.2 Including Top-Charged Scrap Steel in Our Calculations
	43.3 No Oxidation of Scrap Steel in the Top Segment
	43.4 Bottom-Segment Scrap Steel Quantity Specification
	43.5 Scrap Steel Composition and Bottom-Segment Fe Mass Balance
	43.6 Amended Bottom-Segment Enthalpy Balance
	43.7 Nearly Completed Bottom-Segment Matrix
	43.8 SiO2 - A Minor but Important Change
	43.9 Raceway Matrix
	43.10 Top-Segment–Bottom-Segment Connection
	43.11 Top-Segment Matrix
	43.12 Top-Segment Equation
	43.13 Amended Top-Segment Fe Mass Balance
	43.14 Summary of Top-Segment Calculations With Scrap Steel Added
	43.15 Calculation of Top Gas Temperature
		43.15.1 Top-Segment Input Enthalpy
		43.15.2 Top-Segment Output Enthalpy
		43.15.3 Top Gas Enthalpy
		43.15.4 Top Gas Temperature
	43.16 Calculated Results - Coke Requirement
	43.17 Calculated Results: Top Gas CO2 Emissions
	43.18 Calculated Results: Blast Air Requirement
	43.19 Calculated Results: Raceway Flame Temperature
	43.20 Calculated Results - CaO Flux Requirements
	43.21 Calculated Results - Top Gas Temperature
	43.22 Summary
	Exercise
44 Top Charged Direct Reduced Iron
	44.1 Using Direct Reduced Iron in the Blast Furnace
	44.2 Calculation Description
	44.3 No Reaction of DRI Pellets in the Top Segment
	44.4 Bottom-Segment Specifications
	44.5 Amended Bottom-Segment Fe Mass Balance
	44.6 Other Bottom-Segment Mass Balances
		44.6.1 Bottom-Segment C Mass Balance
		44.6.2 Bottom-Segment O Mass Balance
		44.6.3 Bottom-Segment Al2O3 Mass Balance
		44.6.4 Bottom-Segment SiO2 Mass Balance
	44.7 Amended Bottom-Segment Enthalpy Balance
	44.8 Raceway Matrix
	44.9 Top-Segment–Bottom-Segment Connection
	44.10 Top-Segment Matrix
	44.11 Altered Top-Segment Mass Balances
		44.11.1 Fe Mass Balance
		44.11.2 C Mass Balance
		44.11.3 O Mass Balance
		44.11.4 Al2O3 Mass Balance
		44.11.5 SiO2 Mass Balance
	44.12 Calculation of Top-Gas Temperature
		44.12.1 Top-Segment Input Enthalpy
		44.12.2 Top-Segment Output Enthalpy
		44.12.3 Top-Gas Enthalpy
		44.12.4 Top-Gas Temperature
	44.13 Calculated Results - Coke Requirement
	44.14 Calculated Results - Iron Ore Requirement
	44.15 CO2(g) Emission as a Function of DRI Pellet Input
	44.16 Total Top-Gas Emission as a Function of DRI Pellet Input
	44.17 Mass N2(g) in Top-Gas as a Function of DRI Pellet Input
	44.18 Mass SiO2 in Slag as a Function of DRI Pellet Input
	44.19 Flame Temperature With Top-Charged DRI Pellets
	44.20 Top-Gas Temperature With Top-Charged DRI Pellets
	44.21 Discussion
	44.22 Calculation of DRI Pellet Enthalpies, MJ per kg of DRI Pellets
	44.23 Summary
	Exercise
	Reference
45 Bottom-Segment Calculations With H2(g) Injection
	45.1 Reasons for Injecting Hydrogen into the Blast Furnace
	45.2 Bottom-Segment Equations With H2(g) Injection
		45.2.1 H2(g) Injectant Quantity Specification Equation
		45.2.2 Bottom-Segment H Mass Balance Equation With H2(g) Injection
		45.2.3 Carbon Mass Balance Equation With H2(g) Injection
		45.2.4 Enthalpy Equation With H2(g) Injection
	45.3 Calculation Results
	45.4 Summary
	Exercises
46 Top-Segment Calculations With H2(g) Injection
	46.1 Examining the Impact of H2(g) Injection on the Top-Segment Balances
	46.2 Bottom-Segment Calculations With Hydrogen Injection and Dry Blast Air
	46.3 Top-Segment Calculations
	46.4 Top Gas Temperature Results
	46.5 Top Gas Carbon Emissions
	46.6 C-in-Top-Charged Coke
	46.7 Summary
	Exercises
47 CO(g) Injection Into Bottom and Top Segments
	47.1 Objectives of CO(g) Injection
	47.2 Bottom-Segment Equations With CO(g) Injection
		47.2.1 Bottom-Segment CO(g) Injectant Quantity Specification Equation
		47.2.2 Carbon Mass Balance Equation With CO(g) Injection
		47.2.3 Oxygen Mass Balance Equation With CO(g) Injection Into Bottom Segment
		47.2.4 Enthalpy Balance Equation With CO(g) Injection Into Bottom Segment
	47.3 Calculation Results of CO(g) Injection Into Bottom Segment
		47.3.1 Total Carbon Input
	47.4 Summary of CO(g) Injection Into the Bottom Segment
	47.5 Calculation Strategy of CO(g) Injection Into Top Segment
	47.6 Coke Requirement With Top-Segment CO(g) Injection
	47.7 Calculation Results of CO(g) Injection Into Top Segment
	47.8 Discussion and Conclusion of CO(g) Injection Into Top Segment
	47.9 Summary
	Exercises
	Reference
48 Introduction to Blast Furnace Optimization
	48.1 Introduction to Optimization
	48.2 Constraining the Optimization
	48.3 Optimization Techniques
		48.3.1 Linear Optimization
		48.3.2 Nonlinear Optimization
		48.3.3 “Guess and Check” Algorithms
		48.3.4 Comparison of Optimization Techniques
	48.4 Need for Blast Furnace Optimization
	48.5 Optimizing Operations Using the Blast Furnace Model
		48.5.1 Objective Function
		48.5.2 Manipulated Variables
		48.5.3 Constraints
	48.6 Summary
	Exercises
49 Blast Furnace Optimization Case Studies
	49.1 Case Study 1 - Minimizing Coke Rate Using Pulverized Coal Injection (PCI) and Oxygen
		49.1.1 Objective Function, Constraints, and Manipulated Variables
		49.1.2 Initial Conditions
		49.1.3 Optimization Results and Analysis
	49.2 Case Study 2 - Minimizing Coke Rate Using Natural Gas and Oxygen
		49.2.1 Objective Function, Constraints, and Manipulated Variables
		49.2.2 Initial Conditions
		49.2.3 Optimization Results and Analysis
	49.3 Case Study 3 - Minimizing Fuel Costs Using PCI, Natural Gas, and Oxygen
		49.3.1 Objective Function, Constraints, and Manipulated Variables
		49.3.2 Initial Conditions
		49.3.3 Optimization Results and Analysis
	49.4 Case Study 4 - Minimizing CO2(g) Emissions Using PCI, Natural Gas, and Oxygen
		49.4.1 Objective Function, Constraints, and Manipulated Variables
		49.4.2 Initial Conditions
		49.4.3 Optimization Results and Analysis
	49.5 Comparison of the Optimization Case Studies
	49.6 Summary
	Exercises
50 Blast Furnace Rules of Thumb
	50.1 Fuel Rate Adjustments
	50.2 Flame and Top Temperature Impacts
	50.3 Productivity Impact
		50.3.1 Step 1—Estimating Changes in Coke Rate
			50.3.1.1 Example—Burden Distribution Change
			50.3.1.2 Answer
		50.3.2 Step 2—Managing Short-Term Change
			50.3.2.1 Countermeasure 1 - Lower the Injected Fuel (Coal) Rate
			50.3.2.2 Countermeasure 2 - Increasing the Steam Addition Rate
		50.3.3 Step 3—Verifying Top and Flame Temperatures are in Range
		50.3.4 Step 4—Estimating the New Production Rate
	50.4 Summary
	Exercises
	References
51 The Blast Furnace Plant
	51.1 Important Aspects of the Blast Furnace Process
	51.2 Stockhouse
	51.3 The Blast Furnace Top
	51.4 Top Charging Systems
	51.5 Cold and Hot Blast Systems
	51.6 Blast Furnace Gas Cleaning
	51.7 Summary
	Exercises
52 Blast Furnace Proper
	52.1 Understanding the Blast Furnace as a Reactor
	52.2 The Blast Furnace Proper - Definitions and Nomenclature
	52.3 Blast Furnace Structural Design
	52.4 The Basic Blast Furnace Shape
	52.5 Protecting the Steel Shell - An Important Blast Furnace Design Challenge
		52.5.1 Protecting the Shell in the Furnace Throat
		52.5.2 Protecting the Shell in the Stack, Belly, and Bosh Zones
			52.5.2.1 Protecting the Shell With Copper Cooling Plates
			52.5.2.2 Protecting the Shell With Stave Coolers
	52.6 The Tuyere Breast
	52.7 Hearth Design
		52.7.1 Hearth Dimensions
		52.7.2 Hearth Refractory Design
		52.7.3 Hearth Cooling
	52.8 Summary
	Exercises
	References
53 Blast Furnace Refractory Inspection Technologies*
	53.1 Introduction
	53.2 Refractory Wear Mechanisms
	53.3 Determining the Refractory Lining Status
	53.4 Methods to Determine and Monitor Refractory Thickness and Condition
	53.5 Offline Blast Furnace Measurement Techniques
	53.6 Online Refractory Measurement Techniques
		53.6.1 Refractory Thickness Estimates Based on Thermal Modeling
		53.6.2 Isotopes and Radioactive Tracers
		53.6.3 Infrared Thermography
		53.6.4 Acoustic Emission
		53.6.5 Ultrasonic
		53.6.6 Acousto-Ultrasonic-Echo (AU-E)
		53.6.7 AU-E Calibration
		53.6.8 Thickness Measurements and Refractory Wear
		53.6.9 Detection of Anomalies
		53.6.10 Detection of Refractory Chemical Changes
		53.6.11 Metal Penetration
		53.6.12 AU-E and Salamander Tapping
		53.6.13 The Accuracy of AU-E Measurements
		53.6.14 Improvements in the AU-E Technique
	53.7 Summary
	Exercises
	References
	Further Readings
54 Blast Furnace Ferrous Burden Preparation*
	54.1 Brief Description of Ferrous Charge Materials
	54.2 Types of Iron Ore Used to Produce the Ferrous Charge Materials
	54.3 Charge Materials Production Processes
		54.3.1 Lump Ore Production
		54.3.2 Sintering
		54.3.3 Pelletizing
			54.3.3.1 Straight Grate Pelletizing Technology
			54.3.3.2 Grate-Kiln Pelletizing Technology
	54.4 Chemical, Physical, and Metallurgical Properties of Charge Materials
		54.4.1 Iron Content
		54.4.2 Total Acid Gangue Content
		54.4.3 Binary Basicity
		54.4.4 Physical Properties of Blast Furnace Burden Materials
			54.4.4.1 Size Distribution
			54.4.4.2 Tumbler Strength (ISO 3271)
			54.4.4.3 Cold Crushing Strength (ISO 4700)
		54.4.5 Metallurgical Properties of Blast Furnace Burden Materials
			54.4.5.1 Reducibility (ISO 4695)
			54.4.5.2 Low-Temperature Reduction–Disintegration; Static (ISO 4696)
			54.4.5.3 Low-Temperature Reduction–Disintegration; Dynamic (ISO 13930)
			54.4.5.4 Reduction Under Load (ISO 7992)
			54.4.5.5 Free Swelling Index (ISO 4698)
	54.5 Impact of Ferrous Burden Materials on Blast Furnace Operations
	54.6 Global Ferrous Burden Material Usage
	54.7 Summary
	Exercises
	References
55 Metallurgical Coke - A Key to Blast Furnace Operations
	55.1 What Is Metallurgical Coke and Why Is It Required?
	55.2 Coal Blending
	55.3 Common Coke Production Methods
	55.4 By-Product Cokemaking
	55.5 Heat-Recovery Cokemaking
	55.6 Blast Furnace Coke Quality Requirements
		55.6.1 Chemical Composition
		55.6.2 Cold Strength
		55.6.3 Coke Size
		55.6.4 Properties at Elevated Temperatures
		55.6.5 Consistency
		55.6.6 Coke Quality Requirements
	55.7 Summary
	Exercises
	References
56 Blast Furnace Fuel Injection
	56.1 What is Fuel Injection and Why Is It Important?
	56.2 Principles of Fuel Injection
	56.3 Controlling the Injected Fuel Rate
		56.3.1 Step 1—Estimate Oxygen Removed for Reduction and Slag Reactions Per Ton Hot Metal
			56.3.1.1 Silicon
			56.3.1.2 Manganese
			56.3.1.3 Phosphorous
			56.3.1.4 Titanium
			56.3.1.5 Iron
		56.3.2 Step 2 - Calculate the Top Gas Volume and Makeup
		56.3.3 Step 3 - Calculate the Input Oxygen from Blast
		56.3.4 Step 4 - Calculate the Instantaneous Production Rate
	56.4 Using Fuel Injection to Control the Hot Metal Thermal State
	56.5 Coke Residence Time and Quality Requirements
	56.6 Pulverized Coal Injection (PCI)
		56.6.1 Coal Selection and Coke Replacement
			56.6.1.1 Fixed Carbon and Volatile Matter
			56.6.1.2 Coal Quality Summary and Other Considerations
			56.6.1.3 Coke Replacement Ratio
		56.6.2 Coal Grinding
		56.6.3 Coal Injection System Design and Equipment
		56.6.4 PCI Summary
	56.7 Natural Gas Injection
		56.7.1 Coke Oven Gas Injection
	56.8 Coal and Natural Gas Injection
	56.9 Oil and Tar Injection
	56.10 Impact of Injected Fuels on the Blast Furnace Operation
		56.10.1 Maximizing Injected Fuel Usage
		56.10.2 Operating Windows to Maximize Fuel Injection
	56.11 Summary
	Exercises
	References
57 Casting the Blast Furnace*
	57.1 Casting Principles
	57.2 Casthouse Design - The Essential Equipment
	57.3 Casthouse Layouts
	57.4 Casthouse Emission Controls
	57.5 Drilling Open the Taphole
		57.5.1 Oxygen Lancing the Taphole
	57.6 Plugging the Taphole
	57.7 Taphole Construction and the Beehive or Mushroom
	57.8 Taphole Clay
	57.9 Trough Design and Iron-Slag Separation
	57.10 Casting Schedule
		57.10.1 Casting Times
		57.10.2 Dry Hearth Practice
		57.10.3 Iron Gap Time
		57.10.4 Slag Gap Time
		57.10.5 Overlapping Casts on Multiple Taphole Blast Furnaces
		57.10.6 Drill Bit Diameter
		57.10.7 Measuring Hot Metal Temperature and Sampling
		57.10.8 Hearth Drainage
	57.11 Modeling of the Hearth Liquid Level
		57.11.1 Filling - m≐̸i,in (t)
		57.11.2 Accumulation
		57.11.3 Draining - m≐̸i,out (t)
		57.11.4 Solving the Simplified Hearth Drainage Model
	57.12 Summary
	Exercises
	References
58 Blast Furnace Slag
	58.1 Blast Furnace Slag Requirements
	58.2 Slag Composition and Properties
		58.2.1 Slag Fluidity
		58.2.2 Lookup Tables to Estimate Slag Liquidus Temperature
		58.2.3 Lime Content
		58.2.4 Alumina Content
		58.2.5 Magnesia Content
		58.2.6 High Alumina Slag
		58.2.7 Slag Volume
	58.3 Hot Metal Chemistry Control
		58.3.1 Sulfur
		58.3.2 Silicon
		58.3.3 Phosphorus
		58.3.4 Alkali Removal
		58.3.5 Titania in Slag
		58.3.6 Candidate Fluxes
	58.4 By-Product Slag Sale Requirements
		58.4.1 Aggregate and Civil Engineering Applications
		58.4.2 Slag Cement
		58.4.3 Wet Slag Granulation
		58.4.4 Slag Pelletizing
		58.4.5 Dry Granulation Using a High-Velocity Air Stream
		58.4.6 Dry Granulation Using a Spinning Ceramic Cup
	58.5 Finding a Balance Among Competing Demands
		58.5.1 Competing Demands
	58.6 Summary
	Exercises
	References
	Further Reading
59 Burden Distribution
	59.1 The Evolution of Burden Charging Systems
	59.2 The Two-Bell Top System
	59.3 Bell-Less Top Charging
	59.4 Size Segregation and Its Control
	59.5 Charging Practice Objectives
	59.6 Charge Sequencing
	59.7 Positioning Fluxes and Miscellaneous Materials
		59.7.1 Nut Coke
		59.7.2 Ferrous Fines
		59.7.3 Scrap Steel and Hot Briquetted Iron
		59.7.4 Fluxes
	59.8 Visualizing Gas Flow Conditions in the Blast Furnace
	59.9 Burden Distribution Modeling
	59.10 Summary
	Exercises
	References
Appendix A Compound Molecular Masses and Compositions
Appendix B Air Composition and Nitrogen/Oxygen Ratio Assumption
	B.1 Air Composition, mass%
	B.2 Effects of Ignoring Argon
Appendix C Effect of Argon on Blast Furnace Calculations
	C.1 Enthalpy of 0.79kg mol of N2(g)
	C.2 Enthalpy of 0.78kg mol of N2(g)+0.01kg mol of Ar(g)
	Reference
Appendix D CO Raceway Exit Gas Proof
	D.1 Raceway Inputs and Outputs
	D.2 CO(g), CO2(g), and N2(g) Quantities and Mol Fractions in Raceway Exit Gas
	D.3 Oxygen Molar Balance
	D.4 Calculating CO(g) and CO2(g) Mol Fractions for Equilibrium Constant Eq. (D.3)
	D.5 Equilibrium Mole Fractions
Appendix E CO2(g)+C(s)→2CO(g) Equilibrium Constant
	Reference
Appendix F Oxygen Concentration in Blast Furnace Tuyere Raceway With CO(g) Production
	F.1 Equilibrium Constant–Gas Concentration Relationship
	Reference
Appendix G H2(g) Raceway Exit Gas Proof
	G.1 Raceway Inputs and Outputs
	G.2 Equilibrium Raceway Exit Gas
	G.3 H2O(g)+C(s)→H2(g)+CO(g) Equilibrium
Appendix H H2O(g)+C(s)→H2(g)+CO(g) Equilibrium Constant
	Reference
Appendix I Using Excel to Solve Matrices
	I.1 Subsequent Problems
	I.2 Additional Variable Problems
Appendix J How to Compute Element and Compound Enthalpies
	J.1 Introduction
		J.1.1 Element Enthalpies
		J.1.2 Compound Enthalpies [Using CO(g) as an Example]
		J.1.3 Units
		J.1.4 Example Calculation—Enthalpy of CO at 126.85°C (400K)
		J.1.5 Significant Figures
		J.1.6 Impure Substance Enthalpies
		J.1.7 Independent of Pressure
	J.2 Useful Enthalpy Table
	J.3 Enthalpy Equations
	J.4 Enthalpy of Fe–C Alloy Formation
		J.4.1 Calculation of Alloy Mol Fractions
		J.4.2 Calculations: Unit Conversions
		J.4.3 Per kgMol of Carbon
		J.4.4 Per Kg of Carbon
	References
Appendix K CO(g)+Fe0.947O→CO2(g)+0.947Fe Equilibrium Constants
	K.1 Gibbs Free Energy of Reaction
	K.2 Calculation of Equilibrium Constants
	K.3 Calculation Results
Appendix L Equilibrium CO2(g)/CO(g) Mass Ratio
	L.1 Thermodynamic Activities
	L.2 Equilibrium CO2(g)/CO(g) Mass Ratio
Appendix M Calculation of H2(g)+Fe0.947O(s)→H2O(g)+0.947Fe(s) Equilibrium Constants
	Reference
Appendix N Equilibrium H2O(g)/H2(g) Mass Ratio
	N.1 Thermodynamic Activities
	N.2 Equilibrium H2O(g)/H2(g) Mass Ratio
Appendix O Conversion of Grams H2O(g)/Nm3 of Dry Blast Air to kg H2O(g)/kg of Dry Blast Air
	O.1 kgmol of Ideal Gas per Nm3 of Ideal Gas
	O.2 kgmol O2 and N2 in 0.044kgmol of Air
	O.3 kg of O2, N2, and Air in 0.044kgmol of Dry Air
	O.4 kg H2O(g)/kg of Dry Air
	O.5 Matrix Equation
Appendix P Top Gas Mass%, Volume% Calculator
Appendix Q Calculation of Natural Gas Composition in Mass%
Appendix R Natural Gas Enthalpy
	R.1 Comparison Between CH4(g) and Natural Gas
	References
Appendix S Enthalpy of Si in Molten Iron
	S.1 Calculation of Alloy Mol Fractions
	S.2 Calculations: Unit Conversions
	S.3 Enthalpy Per kgmol of Silicon
	S.4 Per kg of Silicon
	S.5 H1500°CSi(dissolved)/MWSi
	Reference
Appendix T C/Fe, Si/Fe, Mn/Fe in Molten Iron Mass Ratio Calculator
Appendix U Enthalpy of Mn in Molten Iron
	U.1 Calculation of Alloy Mol Fractions
	U.2 Calculations: Unit Conversions
	U.3 Enthalpy per kg mol of Manganese
	U.4 Per kg mol of Manganese
	U.5 H1500°CMn(dissolved)/MWMn
	Reference
Appendix V Coal Elemental Composition
	V.1 Al2O3 and SiO2 in Coal
	V.2 Hydrocarbon
	V.3 Summing Up
	Reference
Appendix W CO(g)+3Fe2O3(s)→CO2(s)+2Fe3O4(s) Equilibrium Constant
	W.1 Standard Gibbs-Free Energy of Reaction
	W.2 Calculation of Equilibrium Constants
		W.2.1 127°C (400K) and 25°C (298K) Equilibrium Constants
	W.3 Equilibrium CO2/CO Molar Ratio
	Reference
Appendix X Slag Liquidus Temperature Lookup Tables
Appendix Y Answers to Exercises
	Chapter 1 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 2 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 3 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 4 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 5 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 6 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 7 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 8 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 9 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 10 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 11 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 12 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 13 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 14 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 15 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 16 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 17 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 18 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 19 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 20 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 21 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 22 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 23 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 24 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 25 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 26 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 27 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 28 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 29 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 30 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 31 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 32 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 33 Exercise Answer
	Chapter 34 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 35 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 36 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 37 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 38 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 39 Exercise Answer
	Chapter 40 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 41 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 42 Exercise Answer
	Chapter 43 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 44 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 45 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 46 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 47 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 48 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 49 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 50 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 51 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 52 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 53 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 54 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 55 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 56 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 57 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 58 Exercise Answers
	Chapter 59 Exercise Answers
Epilogue
Index
Back Cover