Biotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture: Emerging Approaches and Strategies

Front Cover
Biotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
	Key Features of the Book
	Organization of the Book
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction
	Biotechnology
	Sustainable Agriculture
	Application of Biotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture
		Genetically Modified Foods
		Biotechnology for Sustainable Livestock Production
			Superovulation and Embryo Transfer
			Somatotrophin in Milk Production
			Gene Transfer and Transgenic
			Vaccines and Diagnostics
			Gene Knockout
			Gene Therapy
		Biotechnologies for Gut Microorganism
		Use of Microbes for Sustainable Agriculture
		Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture and Livestock Production
			Agriculture
			Livestock Production
		Nanotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture
		Biosafety Aspects
		Genetic Engineering and Public Perception
	References
2 Biotechnological Tools to Enhance Sustainable Production
	Introduction
	Need for Biotechnological Tools for Sustainable Agricultural Production
	Biotechnological Tools for Crop Improvement
		Plant Breeding and Marker-Assisted Selection
		Plant Tissue Culture and Micropropagation
		Genetic Engineering and Genetically Modified Crops
			Herbicide Tolerance
			Pest Resistance
			Disease Resistance
		Molecular Pharming
			Transformation Methods
			Stable Transformation
			Recombinant Virus Vector
			Purification and Downstream Processing of Recombinant Proteins
		Biofertilizers
		Biopesticides
		Types of Biopesticides
			Microbial Pesticides
		Bacteria
			Bacillus Thuringiensis (Bt)
		Fungi
		Baculovirus
		Plant-Derived Insecticides
		Neem
		Biochemical Pesticides
	Biotechnological Tools for Livestock Improvement
		Marker-Assisted Selection
			Genetic Marker
			Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
			Microsatellite Markers
			Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms
		Reproductive Technologies
			In Vitro Fertilization
			Artificial Insemination
			Collection of Semen
			Processing of Semen
			Semen Preservation
			Deposition of Semen in the Female
			Embryo Transfer
			Selection of Donor Female
			Superovulation of Donor Female
			Insemination
			Recovery of Embryos and Evaluation
			Selection of Recipient Females
			Transfer of Embryos
		Genetic Engineering and GM Animals
			GM Animals/Transgenic Animals
			Production of GM Livestock/Transgenic Livestock
			Microinjection
			Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer
			Sperm-Mediated Gene Transfer
			Retroviral-Mediated Gene Transfer
			Applications of GM/Transgenic Livestock
			Improved Milk Production and Composition
			Improved Growth Rate and Carcass Composition
			Increased Disease Resistance
			Transgenic Livestock as a Walking Bioreactor
		Molecular Diagnostic Tools and Animal Health
		Vaccine Technology
			Whole Organism Vaccine Technology
			Live-Attenuated Vaccine
			Inactivated (Killed) Vaccine
			Subunit Vaccine Technology
			Toxoids (Anatoxin or Anatoxine)
			Other Vaccine Technology
				DNA Vaccine Technology
				Recombinant Vaccine Technology
				Adjuvants Vaccine Technology
	Biotechnological Tools for Industrial Application
		Protein Engineering (PE)
			Strategies for Protein Engineering
			Protein Engineering for Industrial Products
				Protein Engineering for Industrial Enzymes
				Protein Engineering for Biosensors
				Protein Engineering for Detergents
				Protein Engineering for Drug Development
		Metabolic Engineering (ME)
			Metabolic Engineering of Industrial Products
				ME Approaches for Biofuel Synthesis
				ME for Alcohols Production
				ME for Oils Production
				ME for Drugs Production
	Conclusion
	References
3 Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security
	Introduction
		Transfer of Technologies
		Information Support
	Organic Farming for Sustainable Agriculture
		Benefits of Soil Organic Matter
			Seed Treatments for Sustainable Agriculture
				Biofertilizer as a Potent Nontraditional Additive for Organic Farming
			Types of Biofertilizers
			Importance of Biofertilizers
	Food Security and Climate Change
		Four Dimensions of Food Security
		The Duration of Food Insecurity
			The Severity of Food Insecurity
				Vulnerability
				Hunger, Malnutrition, and Poverty
				Demand for Food Products
				Household Food Security
				Characteristics of Household With Very Low Food Security
		Foodshed
		The Footprint of Food: The “Foodprint”
		Metropolitan AgriFood System
			Ethics in Marketing and the Business Case for Sustainable Food Security
				FAO’s Role in Urban Agriculture
				Social Impacts of Food Security
		The Need to Improve Food Safety and to Implement Quality Assurance
		The “Preharvest” Food Safety and Quality Approach
		Improving Nutrition Outcome Requires More Than Food
		The Most Vulnerability From an Under Nutrition Perspective
		The Intractable, Equity Debate on Sustainable Diets
		Climate Change Adaption and Mitigation
	Future of Food and Farming: Challenges and Choices for Global Sustainability
	Conclusion
	References
4 Plant Biotechnology and Crop Improvement
	Introduction
	Boosting Sustainable Crop Production Through Biotechnological Approaches
		Enhancing Productivity Through Genetically Modified Crops
			Protecting Plants From Diseases
				Resistance to Viral Pathogens
				Resistance to Bacterial Pathogens
				Resistance to Fungal Pathogens
				Pyramiding Transgenes for Disease Resistance
			Insect Resistance
				Bt-Toxin Engineering
				Vegetative Insecticidal Proteins
				Plant Lectins
				Other Strategies for Insect Resistance
			Herbicide Tolerance
				Glyphosate Tolerance
				Tolerance to Other Herbicides
				New Strategies for HT
		Molecular Plant Breeding and Genomics-Assisted Crop Improvement
			DNA Markers and Marker-Assisted Selection
				Linkage Mapping and QTL Identification
				Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS)/Backcross Breeding (MABB)
				Marker-Assisted Gene Pyramiding
			Genomics-Assisted Crop Improvement
				Genotyping by Sequencing
				Genome-Wide Association Studies
				Genomic Selection
	Biotechnology for Improving Nutritional Quality: Transgenic Plants for Better Human Health
		Golden Rice
		Biofortification of Iron in Rice
		Quality Protein Maize
		Modification of Edible Oil Quality
	Genome Editing for Crop Improvement
		Zinc Finger Nucleases as First Molecular Scissors
		TALEN: More Efficient Molecular Scissor
		CRISPR/Cas9: The Most Efficient Scissor
	Molecular Pharming for Metabolite Production in Plants
		Therapeutic, Nutritional, and Other Industrial Protein Production in Plant
		Secondary Metabolite Production by Single Cell Culture
	Future Outlook
	References
	Further Reading
5 Transgenic Animal Production
	Introduction
	Techniques for Animal Genetic Modifications
		Mechanisms of Random Gene Integration
		Mechanisms of Targeted Gene Integration
	Methods for Gene Transfer
		DNA Transfer Into Embryos
			DNA Microinjection
				Use of Transposons
				Use of Lentiviral Vectors
				Use of the PhiC31 Integrase-Mediated System
				Use of ICSI
		DNA Transfer Into Intermediate Cells
			Use of Pluripotent Cells
			Use of Primordial Germ Cells and Testis Stem Cells
			Use of Cloning
	Gene Construction
		Nucleotidic Composition of the Vectors
		Addition of Insulators
		Optimization of the Transcribed Region
		Coexpression of Two Cistrons From the Same Vector
		Gene Inactivation
		Control of Transgenes by Exogenous Inducers
		Gene Deletion
	Use of Transgenic Animals
		Basic and Medical Research
		Adaptation of Pig Organs for Transplantation to Humans
		Production of Pharmaceutical Proteins by Transgenic Animals
		Improvement of Animal Production
	Acceptability of Transgenic Animals
	Perspectives
	References
6 Microbial Biotechnology and Sustainable Agriculture
	Introduction
	The Microbiome
		Potential Significance of Beneficial Microbes in Sustainable Agriculture
		Plant–Microbe Interactions
			Microbial Interactions Across Plant, Soil, and Environmental Interfaces
	Types of Root-Associated Microorganisms
		Plant-Associated Microbiome
		Beneficial Rhizosphere Microorganisms
			Plant-Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria
		Mechanism of Action of PGPR in Rhizosphere Region
		Application of High-Quality Microbial Inoculants
		Seed Treatments for Sustainable Agriculture
		Encourage Beneficial Microbe Establishment at Rhizosphere
		Beneficial Microbes in Agriculture Under Changing-Climatic Scenario
	Biofertilizers
	Biopesticides
	Role of Biotechnology for a Sustainable and Safe Global Agriculture
		Probiotics
	Genetically Engineered Crops: Contribution to Sustainable Agricultural Systems
		Genetically Engineered Crops
	Sustained Agriculture Through Agroecosystem
	Conclusion
	References
7 Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food Security
	Introduction
	Effect of Climate Change on Agriculture and Soil Properties
		Shift in Climatic and Agriculture Zones
		Impact on Agriculture Soil
			Effect on Soil Organic Matter and Soil Fertility
			Effect on Biological Properties of Soil
			Effect on Soil Erosion and Sediment Transport
			Effect on Availability of Soil Water
			Effect on Salinization and Alkalization
			Effect on Acidification
			Effect on Incidence of Pests, Weeds, and Diseases
	Effect of Climate Change on Factors Influencing Agriculture
		Temperature
		Precipitation
		Changes in Atmospheric CO2
		Extreme Events
	Climate Change: Impact on Agriculture
		Impact on Crops
			Impact on Wheat
			Impact on Rice
			Impact on Maize
			Impact on Fruit and Vegetable Crops
		Impact on Fisheries
		Impact on Livestock
		Effect of Increment of CO2 and Temperature on Crops
		Crop Responses to CO2
			Effect on Photosynthesis
			Effect on Respiration
			Changes in the Ratio of CO2/O2
		Effect of CO2 Increase Along With an Increase in Temperature
	Effect of Farming on Climate Change
	Adaptation Strategies to Mitigate Climate Change Impact on Agriculture
		Adaptation Strategies at Farm Level
			Adjusting the Timing and Technicalities of Farm Operations
			Employment of Climate-Resilient Crops and Varieties
			Management of Fertilizers
			Management of Water
			Management of Livestock
			Management of Pests
			Conservation of Soil and Soil Moisture
		Adaptation Strategies at Sectorial Level
	Climate Change and Food Security
		Food Security Risks Are Basically Local and National
		Vulnerable People at Risk
		Impacts of Climate Change on Different Dimensions of Food Security
			Impact of Climate Change on Food Availability
			Impact of Climate Change on Food Accessibility
			Impact of Climate Change on Food Utilization
			Impact of Climate Change on Food Stability
		Policies for Improved Food Security
	Strategies to Mitigate Impact of Climate Change in Agriculture and Food Security
	Conclusion
	References
8 Impact of Climate Change on Livestock Production
	Introduction
		Measurement of Heat Stress Level
		Climate Change Impact on Growth
		Effect of Heat Stress on Milk Production
		Effect of Heat Stress on Estrus and Estrous Cycle
		Impact of Heat Stress on Oocyte Maturation
		Impact of Heat Stress on Embryo Development
		Strategies for Mitigation
			Genetic Approach
			Physical Modification of Environment
			Nutritional Management
			Production Adjustments
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Further Reading
9 Impact of Climate Change on Fisheries
	Introduction
	Effect of Climate Change
		Global Warming
	Natural Processes Affecting the Earth’s Temperature
		Greenhouse Effect
		Melting of Sea and Continent Glaciers
		Rise in the Sea Level
		Degradation in the Coastal Ecosystem
		Change in Currents
		Increase in the Distribution Areas of Vectors
		Increase in the Extinction of Species
	Impact of Global Warming on Aquatic Organisms
		Plankton
		Crustaceans
		Coral Reefs
		Fish
	Changes in Natural Habitats and Food Supply
		Photosynthesis
		Yearly Growth Cycles
		Migration
	Changing Ocean Chemistry/Acidification
		General Acidification
		Acidification Effect on Coral Reefs
		Coral Bleaching
		Holocene Climatic Optimum
		Future Outlook and Human Effects
		Rupture of the Food Chain
		Other Species Affected
	Impact of Climate Change on Marine Fisheries in India
		Changes in Species Composition of Phytoplankton
		Small Pelagics Extend Their Boundaries
		Indian Mackerel Is Getting Deeper
		Spawning: Threadfin Breams Like It Cool
		False Trevally Populations Decline in the Gulf of Mannar
		Footprint of Fishing Operations
		Coral Reefs May Become Remnants
		Impacts of Climate Change on Coastal Systems
		Sundarbans
		Climate Change Impacts on Inland Fisheries—The Indian Scenario
		Anticipated Impacts in Next Few Decades
		Adaptation and Mitigation Options
	References
10 Nanotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture
	Nanotechnology: Definition
	Sustainable Agriculture and Nanotechnology
	Application of Nanotechnology in Sustainable Agriculture: Crop, Livestock, and Fisheries
		Applications of Nanotechnology in Sustaining Crop Production
			Nanotechnology to Boost Crop Productivity and Quality
			Nanotechnology in Plant Disease Management
			Nanopesticides
			Abiotic Stress Tolerance
			Nanofertilizers
			Improvement of Photosynthetic Efficiency
			Water Retention and Management
		Nanobiotechnology: Application in Agriculture and Plant Science
			Use of NPs to Deliver Molecular Cargos Inside Plant Cell
			Use of NPs to Deliver Genetic Material and to Modulate Gene Expression
			Nanomaterial Synthesis From Plant Sources
		Nanotechnology in Reducing Postharvest Loss
		Livestock and Agricultural Animal Husbandry
		Fishery and Aquaculture
		Biological Waste Management Through Nanotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture
	Concerns About Nanotechnology
		Legal and Regulatory Concerns
		Socioeconomic Concerns
		Toxicological and Environment Safety Concerns
	Future Outlook
	References
	Further Reading
11 Biosafety for Sustainable Agriculture
	Introduction
	Traditional Plant-Breeding Approaches vs Newly Established Transgenic Technology
		Genetically Modified Crops
		Genetically Modified Crops/Transgenic Crops Status
			Global Status of Transgenic Crops
			Status of Transgenic Crops in India
	Environmental Safety and Potential Impacts on Biodiversity
		Gene Flow
		Threat to Super Weed
		Threat to Destroy Genetic Diversity
		Threat to Antibiotic Resistant
		Health Concerns
		Impact on Nontarget Organisms
		Trade Dilemmas
		Consumer Acceptance and Regulatory Uncertainty
		Components Involved in Risk Analysis
			Risk Assessment
			Risk Management
			Risk Communication
		Regulatory Framework
	Biosafety Regulatory System in India
		The Structure and Functioning of the Regulatory Organization
			Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee
			Institutional Biosafety Committee
			Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation
			Genetic Engineering Approval Committee
			State Biotechnology Coordination Committee
			District-Level Committees
			Monitoring and Evaluation Committee
	Bottleneck of Biosafety Issues and Feedback of Biosafety Regulatory Authorities
		Pressure Points for the Biosafety Regulations
			Civil Society
			Industry
			Ministry of Environment and Forests
			Crosscutting Issues
	Conclusion
	References
12 Genetic Engineering and Public Perception
	Introduction
	Animal Genetic Engineering
		Applications
			Companion Animals
			Wild Animals
			Farm Animals
			Research Animals
		Ethical Issues and Public Perception
			Invasiveness of Procedures
			Large Number of Animals Required
			Unanticipated Welfare Concerns
		Ethical Guidelines for Use of Animals in Scientific Research
		Other Ethical Issues
	Human Genetic Engineering
		Applications
			Mitochondrial DNA Transfer
			Stem Cells Research
		Ethical Issues and Public Perceptions
		Social Implications
	Plant Genetic Engineering
		Ethical Issues and Public Perceptions
			Global Trends in Public Perceptions of Genetically Engineered Crops and Foods
			Indian Trends in Public Perceptions of Genetically Engineered Crops and Foods
	Genetic Engineering of Microorganisms
		Ethical Issues and Public Perception
	Perception Overview Theoretical
		Reframing Ethical Issues for Public Policy
	Conclusions and Future Aspects
	References
13 The Way Ahead
	Introduction
	Challenges in Agriculture
	Approaches and Strategies of Sustainable Agriculture
	Soil Management
	Water Conservation
		Methods of Irrigation
		In Situ Water Harvesting Options
		Ex Situ Water Harvesting Options
	Air Quality
	Energy Utilization
	Biotechnology for Sustainable Agriculture
		Conflicts and Way Out
		Securing Benefits for Developing Countries
	Sustainable Farming Practice
	Sustainable Livestock Operations
	Sustainable Forest Management
	Sustainable Fisheries
	Nanotechnology for Sustainable Agricultural Production
	Social Security
		Food Waste
	Conclusion
	References
	Further Reading
Index
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