Biopolymer Membranes and Films: Health, Food, Environment, and Energy Applications

Cover
BIOPOLYMER
MEMBRANES
AND FILMS
Health, Food, Environment,
and Energy Applications
Copyright
Dedication
Contributors
Preface and acknowledgment
Acknowledgement
Part I: Fundamentals on biopolymers membranes and films
Fundamentals on biopolymers and global demand
	Introduction
	Polysaccharides and proteins: General characteristics
		Polysaccharides
			Alginate
			Cellulose
			Bacterial cellulose
			Chitin and chitosan
			Gellan gum
			Hyaluronic acid
			Carrageenan
			Starch
			Dextran
			Agarose
			Pectin
		Proteins
			Collagen and gelatin
			Silk fibroin
			Sericin
			Soy protein
	Applications of the membranes of biopolymers
		Biomedical applications
		Food
		Environment
		Energy
	Global demand and market for biopolymers
	Final remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Glossary
Fundamentals of two-dimensional films and membranes
	General aspects of membranes and films
	Processing
		Dense membranes
			Casting
			Extrusion/film blowing
			Coating
				Spread coating
				Spray coating
				Dipcoating
			Layer by layer
		Porous membranes
			Solvent casting and particulate leaching
			Thermally induced phase separation
			Electrospinning
	Modification approaches
		Plasticization
		Cross-linking
		Composites
			Silicate layers
			Carbon nanotubes
			Cellulose nanocrystals
		Blending
		Ionic liquids
	Final remarks
	References
Characterization of biopolymer membranes and films: Physicochemical, mechanical, barrier, and biological prope ...
	Introduction
	Physicochemical characterization
		Microscopy
			Optical microscopy
			Scanning electron microscopy
			Transmission electron microscopy
			Atomic force microscopy
		Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
		Raman spectroscopy
		Nuclear magnetic resonance
		X-ray diffraction analysis
		X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
		Thermal analysis
			Thermogravimetry
			Differential scanning calorimetry
			Dynamic mechanical analysis
	Physical characterization
		Swelling degree
		Degradation/erosion degree
		Mechanical properties
		Barrier properties
			Volumetric methods
			Gravimetric methods
			Differential methods
			Microbial penetration
		Contact angle
		Textural analysis
	Biological characterization
		Cytotoxicity, sensitization capacity, and irritation potential
		Antimicrobial activity
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgment
	References
Diffusion process through biodegradable polymer films
	Introduction
	Natural polymers
	Polysaccharide based films
	Proteins based films
	Active films
	Natural polymer diffusion mechanism
		Mass transfer and diffusion
		Mathematical modeling for the diffusive process in natural polymer films
		Diffusive process in natural polymers
	Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Separation processes with (bio)membranes: Overview and new phenomenological classification
	Introduction
	Fundamentals
		General physical and structure of the membranes
		Membrane feed flux: Frontal and tangential
		Modules of membranes
		Preliminary general description of the separation processes with membranes
	Advantages and disadvantage of the separation processes with membranes
		Advantages
		Disadvantage
	Usual classification of the separation processes with membranes: Dimensional
	Some basic concepts
		Flux and permeability
		Driving forces
		Selectivity
	Description of separation processes with membranes
		Differential pressure as driving force
			Microfiltration
			Ultrafiltration
			Reverse osmosis
			Nanofiltration
		Difference of concentration as driving force
			Dialysis
		Difference of voltage as driving force
			Electrodialysis
		Difference of partial pressure as driving force
			Gas permeation
		Difference of vapor pressure as driving force
			Pervaporation
	New classification of separation processes with membranes
	Conceptual conclusion
	Mechanical unit operations
	Diffusional unit operations
	Consequence of proposed classification for experimentation
	Biopolymers
	Future trends
	References
Part II: Applications of biopolymers membranes/films in health
Biopolymer membranes in tissue engineering
	Introduction
	Basic concepts of membrane characteristics envisioning tissue-engineering applications
	Biomedical applications of membranes
		Wound dressing
		Drug delivery
		Peripheral nerve regeneration
		Cartilage regeneration
		Guided bone tissue regeneration
		Other tissues
	Final remarks
	Acknowledgments
	References
	Glossary
Biopolymer-based films and membranes as wound dressings
	Introduction
	Characteristics of skin lesions
	Major requirements to be fulfilled by wound dressings
	Types and properties of biopolymers used in wound dressings
		Chitosan
		Alginates
		Xanthan gum
		Bacterial cellulose
		Hyaluronan
		Collagen
		Gelatin
		Silk fibroin
		Keratin
	Blends, composites, and associations with other bioactive agents
		Blends
		Composites
		Association with bioactive agents
	Final remarks
	References
Recent advances in biopolymer-based transdermal patches
	Introduction
	Transdermal drug delivery systems
		Biopolymer-based transdermal films and patches
			Chitosan based on transdermal films and patches
			Pectin based on transdermal films and patches
			Ethyl cellulose based on transdermal films and patches
			Other biopolymers used in transdermal films and patches
		Biopolymer-based microneedle patches
			Hyaluronic acid/sodium hyaluronate based on dissolving microneedles
			Carboxymethyl cellulose based on dissolving microneedles
			Chitosan based on dissolving microneedles
			Gelatin based on dissolving microneedles
			Silk fibroin based on dissolving microneedles
			Chondroitin sulfate based on dissolving microneedles
			Miscellaneous biopolymer-based dissolving microneedles
		Biopolymer-based nanofiber mats
	Conclusion
	References
Fundamentals and biomedical applications of biopolymer-based layer-by-layer films
	Overview
	Principles of LbL film assembly
	Antimicrobial LbL films
		Antimicrobial surface approach
		Antibacterial and antifungal surfaces
	LbL films for sensing applications
	Tissue engineering applications via LbL technique
		Surface functionalization and TE applications
		Multilayered cell scaffolds for TE applications
	LbL films for drug delivery applications
	Gene delivery applications for LbL films
	Combination of LbL with other molecular assemblies
		Micelles
		Liposomes
	Conclusions and future challenges
	Acknowledgments
	References
Biopolymer membranes for dentistry applications
	Introduction
	Biopolymer membranes and films in dentistry
		Natural and synthetic biopolymers
			Collagen
			Chitosan
			Gelatin
			Cellulose and derivatives
			Hyaluronic acid
			Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)
			Other polymers
		Blends, composites, and hybrid membranes
			Blends
			Silver nanoparticle composites
			Hydroxyapatite composites
			Calcium phosphate composites
			Bioactive glass composites
			Hybrid films
	Treatments employing biopolymers
		Endodontic therapy
		Extractions, implants, and bone regeneration
		Periodontology
		Oral cancer treatment
		Prosthetic dentistry
		Caries prevention
		Release of anesthetics
	Drug delivery systems in the oral environment
		Antimicrobial and antiinflammatory drugs
		Anesthetics
		Bone- and tissue-healing agents
	Final considerations and future perspectives
	References
Biopolymer-based coatings for cardiovascular applications
	Introduction
	Biopolymers used for cardiovascular applications
	Chemical modification of chitosan: Sulfonation reaction
	Hemocompatible properties of sulfated chitosan
		Protein adsorption on raw and sulfated chitosan
		Platelet adhesion on raw and sulfated chitosan
	Sulfated chitosan-based coating on metal surfaces
		Sulfated chitosan-based coating on stainless steel
		Chitosan-heparin nanoparticle coating on NiTi alloys
	Challenges using natural polymer coatings on metal surfaces
	References
Orally disintegrating films of biopolymers for drug delivery
	Introduction
	Biopolymers used to produce orally disintegrating films
		Production methods of orally disintegrating films
		Innovative production methods of orally disintegrating films
	Characterization of orally disintegrating films
		Disintegration time
		Mucoadhesion
		Surface pH
		Dissolution of orally disintegrating films
	Conclusion
	References
Skin rejuvenation: Biopolymers applied to UV sunscreens and sheet masks
	Introduction
	Physiological effects of UV exposure
		Aging
		Immune system
	Skin structure and phototype
	Sun exposure and sunscreen protection
	Sheet masks and biopolymers
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Part III: Application of biopolymers membranes/films in environment and energy
Heavy metal removal from industrial effluents using biopolymer membranes
	Introduction
	Chitosan
		Obtaining chitosan membrane adsorbents
			Chemistry of chitosan
			Chitosan-based membranes
				Blended chitosan membranes
				Supported chitosan membranes
				Composite membrane
	Cellulose
		Chemistry of cellulose
		Cellulose modification
		Cellulose-based membranes
	Carrageenans
		Chemistry of carrageenan
		Carrageenan modification
		Carrageenan-based membranes
	Alginate
		Chemistry of alginate
		Alginate modification
		Alginate-based membranes
	Conclusions
	References
Pesticide removal from industrial effluents using biopolymeric materials
	Introduction
	Overview of pesticides
		Classification
			Classification based on pesticide toxicological behavior
			Classification based on pesticide biological targets
			Classification based on pesticide chemical structure
		Characteristics of pesticides and their environmental fates after application
	Biopolymers used in the removal of pesticides
	Conclusions and future perspectives
	Acknowledgments
	References
Dye removal from effluents using biopolymer membranes
	The importance of dye removal from effluents
		Dyes: Classification and uses
		Environmental and public health risks
		Guidelines for discharge of colored effluents
		Methods for dye removal from effluents
	Biopolymer membranes for dye removal
		Biopolymers used for membrane preparation
		Raw materials for biopolymer-based membrane preparation
		Characterization techniques
		Laboratory experiments using membranes for dye removal
		Evaluation of membrane performance
		Comparative analysis of several biopolymer membranes for dye removal
		Real applications (real industrial effluents)
		Perspectives and challenges
	References
Pharmaceutical and synthetic hormone removal using biopolymer membranes
	Pharmaceutical and synthetic hormone removal
	Fabrication of membranes and biomembranes
		Biopolymers used in membrane manufacturing
			Biopolymers derived from bacterial fermentation products used for manufacturing membranes
				Polylactic acid
				Polyhydroxyalkanoates
				Poly(butylene succinate)
			Biopolymers derived from vegetable sources used for manufacturing membranes
				Cellulose-based polymers
				Alginate
				Polyisoprene
				Starch and cyclodextrins
			Biopolymers derived from animal sources used for manufacturing membranes
				Chitosan
				Collagen
				Silk
		Biopolymer-metal-organic framework
		Membranes and biomembranes produced by electrospinning process
		Molecularly imprinted membranes and biomembranes
	Theoretical factors considered for membrane separation
		Analysis of the adsorption equilibrium
		Adsorption kinetics
	Removal pharmaceuticals and hormones
	Conclusions and future outlook
	References
	Further reading
Biopolymer membranes in fuel cell applications
	Introduction
	Fuel cells
		Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs)
		Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs)
		Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs)
		Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs)
		Direct carbon fuel cells (DCFCs)
		Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs)
		Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs)
		Biofuel cells (BFCs)
	Biopolymer membranes for fuel cells
		Chitosan (CS)
			Self-cross-linked and salt-complexed chitosans
			Chitosan-based polymer blends
			Chitosan/inorganic filler composites
			Chitosan/polymer composites
		Cellulose (C)
			Pure cellulose
			Cellulose acetate
			Cross-linked cellulose-based membranes
			Cellulose-based graft copolymers
			Cellulose-based materials doped with inorganic/organic compounds
			Cellulose-based polymer composites
		Alginate
		Starch
		Pectin
		Agar
		Gelatin
	Summary and future perspectives
	References
Biopolymer membranes for battery applications
	Introduction
		Ionic dopant/salt effects on biopolymers
		Biopolymers incorporated with a plasticizer
	Preparation of biopolymer membranes
	Characterization of biopolymer membranes for batteries
		Electrical impedance spectroscopy
			Equivalent circuit model
			Ionic conductivity
			Dielectric properties
			Ionic conduction mechanism
		X-ray diffraction
		Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
		Transference number measurement
	Biopolymer membranes in the battery
		Operating principle of a battery
		Characterization of battery performance
			Open circuit voltage
			Discharge characteristics
			Rechargeability
	Conclusions and future prospects
	References
Part IV: Applications of biopolymers membranes/films in food
Application of edible biopolymer coatings to extend the storage life of fresh fruits and vegetables
	Introduction
	Materials
	Some biopolymers used in the production of edible coatings
	Edible coatings and active edible coatings
		Edible coatings
		Active edible coatings
	Considerations
	References
Application of edible biopolymer coatings on meats, poultry, and seafood
	Introduction
	Meats, poultry, and seafood spoilage
	Edible coatings and films
	Materials used for edible coatings and films
		Polysaccharide-based edible film
			Alginate
			Cellulose and derivatives
			Chitosan
			Pectin
			Starch
		Protein-based edible coating and films
			Corn zein
			Gelatin
			Wheat gluten
			Whey protein
		Composite edible coatings and films
	Active components incorporated in edible films and coatings to meats, poultry, and seafood
	Effect of edible films and coatings on quality of meats, poultry, and seafood
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Oxygen scavenging films and coating of biopolymers for food application
	Introduction
	Oxygen scavenging technology
		Oxygen scavenging films
	Oxygen scavenging agents
		Iron and other metallic scavengers
		Ascorbic acid and other natural OS agents
		Enzymatic scavengers
		Photosensitive dyes
		Unsaturated hydrocarbons
		Immobilization of microorganisms
	Technologies for the preparation of oxygen scavenging films
		Coating
		Incorporation into packaging
		Multilayer active films
		Immobilization
	Recent developments in oxygen scavenging films
		Nanomaterials as oxygen scavenging systems
	Future trends and conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Biopolymers applied as ethylene-scavenging films and coatings
	Introduction
	Climacteric and nonclimacteric crops
	Ethylene importance
	Conventional methods for ethylene scavenging
		1-Methylcyclopropene
		Potassium permanganate
		Adsorbent materials used in ethylene scavenging systems
	Biopolymer films for ethylene control
		Edible coating systems
		Packaging film systems
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
Edible films and coatings made up of fruits and vegetables
	Introduction
	Fruit and vegetable-based films and coating technology
	Current research and product development
	Future trends
	References
Probiotic-containing edible films and coatings of biopolymers
	Introduction
	Probiotics and prebiotics
		Definitions
		Beneficial effects on human health
		Issues on the use of probiotics in food
			Chemical, biochemical, and microbial activities of probiotics in polymeric matrices
			The use of probiotics in bioactive packaging
	Edible films and coating biopolymers containing probiotics
		Polymeric matrices
			Plant-derived biopolymers
				Starch and derivatives
				Cellulose and derivatives
				Pectin
				Alginate
				Arabic gum
			Animal-derived biopolymers
				Chitosan
				Gelatin
				Casein
				Whey protein
			Microbial derived biopolymers
				Dextran
				Gellan
				Xanthan
				Microbial alginate
		Methods of probiotic incorporation
			Entrapment
			Encapsulation
				Microencapsulation
				Nanoencapsulation
		Probiotics release from polymeric matrices
			Control of microbial growth
			Microbial survival
			Metabolic activity
	Regulations on the use of probiotics in the food industry
	Conclusion
	Acknowledgments
	References
Index
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	C
	D
	E
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	H
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	K
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	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
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