Biophysical Bone Behaviour: Principles and Applications

BIOPHYSICAL BONE BEHAVIOR: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS......Page 5
Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 13
Acknowledgements......Page 15
About the Book......Page 17
1.1 Introduction......Page 19
1.2 Structural Aspect of Bone......Page 21
1.2.1 Elementary Constituents of Bone......Page 25
1.2.2 The Fibers......Page 26
1.2.3 Collagen Synthesis......Page 29
1.2.4 Bone Matrix (Inorganic Component)......Page 30
1.3.2 Fine Cancellous Bone......Page 35
1.4 Lamellation......Page 36
1.5 Role of Bone Water......Page 41
1.6.1 Ca and P Metabolism......Page 44
1.7 Osteoporosis......Page 45
1.8 Bone Cells......Page 47
1.8.1 Osteoblasts......Page 48
1.8.2 Osteoblast Differentiation......Page 49
1.8.3 Osteoclast......Page 50
1.8.4 Osteoclast Differentiation......Page 51
1.8.6 Mathematical Formulation......Page 54
1.9 Bone Remodeling......Page 56
1.10 Biochemical Markers of Bone and Collagen......Page 68
1.11 Summary......Page 69
2.1 Introduction......Page 71
2.2 Piezoelectric Effect......Page 72
2.2.1 Properties Relating to Piezoelectricity......Page 75
2.3 Physical Concept of Piezoelectricity......Page 77
2.3.1 Piezoelectric Theory......Page 78
2.4 Sound Propagated in a Piezoelectric Medium......Page 79
2.6 Piezoelectric Properties of Dry Compact Bones......Page 80
2.6.1 Piezoelectric Properties of Dry and Wet Collagens......Page 82
2.6.2 Measurement of Piezoelectricity in Bone......Page 83
2.7 Bone Structure and Piezoelectric Properties......Page 87
2.8 Piezoelectric Transducers......Page 89
2.8.2 Transverse-Effect Transducer......Page 91
2.9 Ferroelectricity in Bone......Page 92
2.9.1 Experimental Details......Page 93
2.10.1 Material Properties......Page 94
2.10.2 Bone Mechanical Properties......Page 99
2.11 Mechanical Properties of Cancellous Bone: Microscopic View......Page 111
2.12.1 Biochemical Coupling......Page 112
2.13 Traveling Wave Characteristics......Page 114
2.14 Viscoelasticity in Bone......Page 116
2.15 Discussion......Page 118
3.2 Mechanism of Biopotential Generation......Page 121
3.3 Stress-Generated Potentials (SGPs) in Bone......Page 125
3.4 Streaming Potentials and Currents of Normal Cortical Bone: Macroscopic Approach......Page 126
3.4.1 Streaming Potential and Current Dependence on Bone Structure and Composition: Macroscopic View......Page 130
3.5 Microscopic Potentials and Models of SP Generation in Bone......Page 131
3.6 Stress-Generated Fields of Trabecular Bone......Page 132
3.7.2 Control Data......Page 134
3.7.5 Electromagnetic Field (50 Hz) Stimulation Along with Radio Frequency Field Coupling......Page 137
3.7.6 Continuous Fields......Page 138
3.7.7 Impedance Measurements......Page 143
3.8 Origin of Various Bioelectric Potentials in Bone......Page 144
4.1 Introduction......Page 147
4.2.1 Bone as a Semiconductor......Page 148
4.2.2 Bone Dielectric Properties......Page 151
4.3 Microwave Conductivity in Bone......Page 156
4.4 Electret Phenomena......Page 163
4.4.3 Magneto Electret......Page 164
4.5 Hall Effect in Bone......Page 165
4.5.1 Hall Effect, Hall Mobility and Drift Mobility......Page 167
4.5.2 Magnetic Field Dependence of the Hall Coefficient in Apatite......Page 168
4.7 PN Junction Phenomena in Bone......Page 170
4.7.1 Breakdown Phenomenon of PN Junction......Page 173
4.7.3 Photoelectromagnetic (PEM) Effect......Page 175
4.7.4 Life Time of Charge Carriers......Page 177
4.8 Bone Electrical Parameters in Microstrip Line Configuration......Page 179
4.8.1 Theoretical Formulation......Page 180
4.9 Bone Physical Properties and Ultrasonic Transducer......Page 181
5.1 Introduction......Page 191
5.2.1 Mechanisms of Bone Fracture......Page 192
5.2.2 Mechanical Stimulation to Enhance Fracture Repair......Page 195
5.3 Bone Fracture Healing......Page 198
5.3.1 Histologic Fractures......Page 199
5.3.2 Growth Hormone (GH) Effect on Fracture Healing......Page 203
5.3.4 Cell Array Model for Repairing or Remodeling Bone......Page 204
5.4 Electromagnetic Field and Fracture Healing......Page 205
5.4.1 Methods in Bone Fracture Healing......Page 206
5.4.2 Stimulation by Constant Direct Current Sources......Page 208
5.4.3 Pulsed Electromagnetic Fields (PEMFs)......Page 213
5.4.4 Inductive Coupling......Page 217
5.4.5 Capacitive Coupling......Page 219
5.4.6 Mechanism of Action......Page 222
5.4.7 Mechanism of PEMF Interaction at the Cellular Level......Page 226
5.4.8 Spatial Coherence......Page 229
5.4.10 The Biophysical Interaction Concept of Window......Page 230
5.4.11 Mechanisms for EMF Effects on Bone Signal Transduction......Page 233
5.5 Venous Pressure and Bone Formation......Page 234
5.6 Ultrasound and Bone Repair......Page 235
5.6.1 Ultrasonic Attenuation......Page 239
5.6.3 Measurements on Models......Page 241
5.7 SNR Analysis for EMF, US and SGP Signals......Page 243
5.7.1 Ununited Fractures......Page 245
5.8 Low Energy He-Ne Laser Irradiation and Bone Repair......Page 247
5.9 Electrostimulation of Osteoporosis......Page 249
5.10 Other Techniques: Use of Nanoparticles......Page 254
5.11 Possible Mechanism Involved in Osteoporosis......Page 255
6.1 Introduction......Page 259
6.1.2 Osteoporosis in Men......Page 263
6.1.3 Osteoporosis Types......Page 265
6.1.5 Effect of Microgravity......Page 266
6.1.6 Bone Loss......Page 267
6.2 Senile and Postmenopausal Osteoporosis......Page 270
6.2.1 Type of Bone Pathogenesis......Page 272
6.2.2 Risk Factors for Fractures......Page 274
6.2.3 Fracture Risk Models......Page 275
6.3 Theoretical Analysis of Fracture Prediction by Distant BMD Measurement Sites......Page 277
6.4.1 Structural Changes......Page 279
6.4.2 Biophysical Parameters......Page 280
6.6.1 Steroid-Induced Osteoporosis......Page 282
6.6.2 Impact of HRT on Osteoporotic Fractures......Page 288
6.6.3 Role of Estrogen–Progesterone Combination......Page 289
6.7 Glucocorticoid......Page 290
6.8 Vitamin D and Osteoporosis......Page 292
6.9 Role of Calcitonin......Page 297
6.11 Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)......Page 299
6.12 Role of Prostaglandins......Page 302
6.13 Thiazide Diuretics (TD)......Page 303
6.14 Effects of Fluoride......Page 304
6.15 Role of Growth Hormone (GH)......Page 306
6.17 Interleukin 1 (IL-1)......Page 307
6.18 Bisphosphonates (BPs)......Page 308
6.19 Adipocyte Hormones......Page 309
6.20 Mechanism of Action of Antiresorptive Agents......Page 311
6.21 Genetic Studies of Osteoporosis......Page 312
6.22.2 Salt Intake......Page 313
6.22.3 Calcium......Page 314
6.22.4 Protein......Page 318
6.22.6 Phosphorous......Page 319
6.22.9 Alcohol......Page 320
6.22.10 Caffeine......Page 321
6.23 Osteoporosis: Prevention and Treatment......Page 323
6.23.1 Gene Therapy......Page 326
6.24.1 Electrical Stimulation and Osteoporosis......Page 327
6.24.2 Ultrasonic Methods......Page 329
6.25 Conclusion......Page 333
7.1 Introduction......Page 335
7.2 Measurement of the Mineral Content......Page 338
7.2.2 Calibration and Accuracy......Page 340
7.2.3 Limitations......Page 341
7.2.4 Singh Index......Page 342
7.3 Bone Densitometric Methods......Page 343
7.4 X-Ray Tomography......Page 346
7.5 Skeleton Roentgenology......Page 347
7.6 Metacarpal Index......Page 348
7.7 Analysis of Radiographic Methods......Page 350
7.8.1 Theory......Page 351
7.8.2 Clinical Applications......Page 354
7.9 Limitations of the Method......Page 356
7.10 Dual-Photon Absorptiometry (DPA)......Page 357
7.10.1 Theoretical Background......Page 359
7.10.3 Nature of Attenuation......Page 360
7.10.4 Reproducibility......Page 361
7.11.1 Instrumentation and Clinical Procedure......Page 362
7.11.2 Quantitative Computed Tomography (QCT)......Page 364
7.12 Modification of CT Methods......Page 367
7.12.1 CT Methods: Benefits and Risks......Page 368
7.12.2 Discussion......Page 369
7.13 Methods Based on Compton Scattering......Page 370
7.13.1 Technique......Page 372
7.14 Coherent and Compton Scattering......Page 373
7.14.1 Clinical Applications......Page 376
7.15.1 Dual Energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DEXA)......Page 378
7.15.2 Theoretical Formulation and Instrumentation......Page 379
7.15.3 Technical Details......Page 381
7.15.4 Simulation Studies......Page 384
7.16.1 Technique......Page 387
7.16.2 Site Choice......Page 389
7.17 Infrasound Method for Bone Mass Measurements......Page 390
7.17.1 The Ultrasonic Measurement: Concepts and Technique......Page 391
7.17.2 Stress Wave Propagation in Bone and its Clinical Use......Page 394
7.17.3 Measurement of Bone Parameters......Page 396
7.17.5 Procedure for Obtaining Patient Data......Page 397
7.17.6 Analysis of Patient Data......Page 398
7.17.7 Verification of the In Vivo Bone Parameters......Page 399
7.18.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)......Page 401
7.19 Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of the Various Techniques......Page 404
References......Page 407
Index......Page 497