Bionanotechnology in Cancer: Diagnosis and Therapy

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface
Foreword
Chapter 1: Introduction to Cancer, Conventional Therapies, and Bionano-Based Advanced Anticancer Strategies
	1.1: Cancer
	1.2: Understanding Cancer and Its Occurrence
		1.2.1: Genes Activities Related to Cancer
	1.3: Different Theories of Carcinogenesis
	1.4: Factors Influencing Cancer Development
		1.4.1: Intrinsic/Biological Factors
		1.4.2: External Factors
	1.5: Microenvironment of Cancer
		1.5.1: Tumor Angiogenesis
		1.5.2: Physical and Chemical Cues
		1.5.3: Acidosis
		1.5.4: High Interstitial Fluid Pressure
		1.5.5: Enhanced Permeability Retention
		1.5.6: Hypoxia
	1.6: Cellular and Non-Cellular Components That Support Tumor Growth
		1.6.1: Cellular Components
		1.6.2: Non-Cellular Components
	1.7: Difference between Normal Cells and Cancer Cells
	1.8: Conventional Anti-Cancer Therapies
	1.9: Cell Death and Cancer
	1.10: Advanced Nanotechnology for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy
		1.10.1: Key Features of Nanomaterials for Therapy and Diagnostic Applications
			1.10.1.1: Nanoparticle size
			1.10.1.2: Nanoparticle surface properties
			1.10.1.3: NPs in diagnosis
			1.10.1.4: NPs in imaging
			1.10.1.5: Targeted nanoparticles
			1.10.1.6: Nanomaterials to target and regulate tumor and its microenvironment
		1.10.2: Challenges Faced by NPs in Combatting Tumor
			1.10.2.1: Challenges faced during circulation
			1.10.2.2: Challenges after reaching tumor
	1.11: Conclusion and Future Perspective
Chapter 2: Understanding the Interaction of Nanoparticles at the Cellular Interface
	2.1: Introduction
	2.2: Nanotechnology
	2.3: NPs and Cell Internalization
	2.4: Transmembrane Penetration by Designed Nanomaterials
	2.5: Engineered Protein Corona: A Better Drug Delivery System
	2.6: Subcellular Interaction of NPs
	2.7: Endosomal/Lysosomal Escape of NPs
		2.7.1: Formation of Membrane Pores in Lysosomes/Endosomes
		2.7.2: Proton Sponge Effect
		2.7.3: Fusion with Endosomal Membrane
		2.7.4: Photochemical Rupture of Endosomal Membrane
	2.8: Tumor and Nanomedicine
	2.9: Smart Material as Drug Delivery Nanoparticle
		2.9.1: Polymeric Drug Nanocarrier: Act as a Smart Material
	2.10: Conclusion and Future Perspective
Nanodiagnostics
	Chapter 3: Radiolabeled Nanoparticles for Cancer Diagnosis
		3.1: Introduction
		3.2: SPECT
		3.3: Positron Emission Tomography
		3.4: Radiolabeled Nanoparticles
			3.4.1: Polymer-Based RNPs
			3.4.2: Liposome-Based RNPs
			3.4.3: Carbon Nanotube-Based RNPs
			3.4.4: Inorganic NPs as RNPs
		3.5: Multimodal Imaging of PET and SPECT with MRI, CT, and NIRF
		3.6: Conclusion and Future Prospects
	Chapter 4: Magnetic Nanoparticles for Cancer Diagnosis
		4.1: Introduction
		4.2: Principle of MRI
		4.3: MNPs as MRI Contrast Agents
		4.4: Dual-Mode (T1 and T2) MRI Contrast Agents
		4.5: Multimodal Imaging: MRI with PET, SPECT, Optical, and Ultrasound
		4.6: Novel Application of MNPs for Imaging
			4.6.1: Magnetic Particle Imaging–MRI
			4.6.2: MMUS–US Dual-Modal Imaging
			4.6.3: MPA–US Dual-Modal Imaging
		4.7: Conclusion and Future Prospects
	Chapter 5: Acoustically Reflective Nanoparticles for Tumor Diagnosis
		5.1: Introduction
		5.2: Ultrasound Imaging
			5.2.1: Microbubble as Contrast Agent
			5.2.2: Different Nanobubbles as Contrast Agents
				5.2.2.1: PFC emulsion nanodroplets
				5.2.2.2: Echogenic Liposomes
				5.2.2.3: Polymer-based nanobubbles
				5.2.2.4: Solid NPs
		5.3: Multimodal Imaging: US Imaging with MRI, PET, SPECT, and PA
		5.4: Conclusion and Future Prospects
	Chapter 6: X-Ray Computed Tomography and Nanomaterials as Contrast Agents for Tumor Diagnosis
		6.1: Introduction
		6.2: Iodinated and Gold-Based Nano Contrast Agents
		6.3: Radiopaque Polymeric NPs
		6.4: Inorganic Nanomaterials
		6.5: Multi-Modal Imaging of X-Ray CT with MRI, PET, and FI
		6.6: Conclusion and Future Prospects
	Chapter 7: Optical Nanoprobes for Diagnosis
		7.1: Introduction
		7.2: Optical Imaging with Nanoparticles
			7.2.1: Semiconductor QDs
			7.2.2: Metallic NPs
			7.2.3: Carbon Nanotubes
			7.2.4: Polymeric Nanoparticles
			7.2.5: UCNPs
			7.2.6: Ceramic NPs
		7.3: Conclusion and Future Prospects
Nanotherapy
	Chapter 8: Nanomaterials in Chemotherapy
		8.1: Introduction
			8.1.1: DDS
			8.1.2: DDS Evolution
			8.1.3: Nanomedicine and DDS
		8.2: DDS Behavior in Bloodstream
		8.3: Drug Release Mechanisms
			8.3.1: Diffusion-Controlled Release
			8.3.2: Solvent-Controlled Release
			8.3.3: Chemically Programmed Release
		8.4: Lipid-Based DDSs
			8.4.1: Composition and Preparation
			8.4.2: Drug Loading into Liposomes
			8.4.3: Targeting and Drug Release
			8.4.4: Lipid-Coated Polymeric Nanoparticles
			8.4.5: Hybrid Liposomes
		8.5: Polymer-Based DDSs
			8.5.1: Polymeric Micelles
				8.5.1.1: Drug loading and release in polymeric micelles
			8.5.2: Polymer Vesicles
			8.5.3: Polymer–Drug Conjugates
			8.5.4: Dendritic Polymers
			8.5.5: Hyperbranched Polymers
		8.6: Inorganic Nanomaterials
		8.7: Carbon Nanostructures
		8.8: Nanoscale Metal-Organic Frameworks
		8.9: Clinically Approved Cancer Nano-Chemotherapeutics
		8.10: Conclusion and Future Prospects
	Chapter 9: Magnetic Nanoparticles for Hyperthermia against Cancer
		9.1: Introduction
		9.2: Biology of Hyperthermia and Cell Death
		9.3: Heat Generating Sources for Hyperthermia
		9.4: Concepts of Nanotechnology and Hyperthermia: Nanothermotherapy
		9.5: Mechanism of Heat Generation
			9.5.1: Metal Nanoparticle Heating
			9.5.2: MNP Heating
		9.6: Factors Influencing Design of MNPs for Hyperthermia
		9.7: Magnetic Nanomaterials for Hyperthermia
		9.8: Significance of SPIONs in Hyperthermia
		9.9: Engineered Smart Nanosystems: Drug Delivery via Hyperthermia
		9.10: Examples of MNP Hyperthermia in Biology
		9.11: Conclusion and Future Prospects
	Chapter 10: Phototherapy Using Nanomaterials
		10.1: Introduction
		10.2: Photothermal Therapy
			10.2.1: Metal-Based Nanomaterial
				10.2.1.1: Gold nanoshells
				10.2.1.2: Gold nanorods
				10.2.1.3: Hollow gold nanoshells
				10.2.1.4: Gold nanocages
				10.2.1.5: Gold nanostars
			10.2.2: Carbon Nanomaterials
				10.2.2.1: CNTs
				10.2.2.2: Graphene
				10.2.2.3: Fullerenes
		10.3: Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) – Introduction
			10.3.1: Challenges to Clinical Adoption of PDT
				10.3.1.1: Photosensitizers
				10.3.1.2: Light wavelength
				10.3.1.3: Selective drug delivery
		10.4: Nanoparticles in PDT
			10.4.1: Passive Nanoparticles
				10.4.1.1: Biodegradable nanoparticle carriers
				10.4.1.2: Non-biodegradable nanoparticle carriers
			10.4.2: Active Nanoparticles
				10.4.2.1: Photosensitizer nanoparticles
				10.4.2.2: Self-lighting nanoparticles
				10.4.2.3: Upconversion nanoparticles
		10.5: Conclusion and Future Prospects
	Chapter 11: Nanotechnology-Mediated Radiation Therapy
		11.1: Introduction
		11.2: Radiotherapy: Principles and Examples in Various Cancers
			11.2.1: Breast Cancer
			11.2.2: Liver Cancer
			11.2.3: Ovarian Cancer
			11.2.4: Head and Neck Cancer
			11.2.5: Prostate Cancer
		11.3: Techniques of Radiation Therapy
			11.3.1: Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy
			11.3.2: Image-Guided Radiation Therapy
			11.3.3: Particle Therapy
			11.3.4: 3D Conformal Radiotherapy (3DCRT) and Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy
			11.3.5: Internal Radiation Therapy
		11.4: Radiation Induced Cell Death Mechanisms
			11.4.1: Mitotic Cell Death
			11.4.2: Apoptosis and Necrosis
			11.4.3: Autophagy
			11.4.4: Senescence
		11.5: Risks Associated with Conventional Radiotherapy
		11.6: Nanotechnology-Mediated Radiotherapy Treatments
			11.6.1: Gold Nanoparticles
			11.6.2: Platinum- and Silver-Based NPs
			11.6.3: Gadolinium-Based NPs
			11.6.4: Hafnium-Based NPs
			11.6.5: Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles
		11.7: Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	Chapter 12: Role of Nanoparticles in Cancer Immunotherapy
		12.1: Introduction
			12.1.1: Innate and Adaptive Immunity
			12.1.2: Cancer and Treatment Methods
		12.2: Tumor Immune Surveillance and Immunoediting
		12.3: Cancer Immunotherapy
			12.3.1: Enhancement Immunotherapy
				12.3.1.1: Passive immunotherapy
				12.3.1.2: Active immunotherapy
			12.3.2: Normalization Immunotherapy (Tumor Specific Immune Activation)
		12.4: Immune Evasion Strategies by Tumor
			12.4.1: Downregulating MHC Class I Expression
			12.4.2: Developing Resistance to CTL-Mediated Killing Mechanisms
			12.4.3: Turning Off Activated T-Cells via Direct Contact
			12.4.4: Releasing Soluble Factors to Inhibit Immune Cells
			12.4.5: Inhibiting T Cells through Bystander Effect
		12.5: Tumor Immunotherapy: Advantages, Drawbacks, and Need of Combination Approaches
		12.6: Nano Immunotherapy
			12.6.1: Delivery of TAA and Adjuvants to APCs
			12.6.2: Role of Artificial APCs
			12.6.3: Direct Activation of TAA-Specific T Cells
			12.6.4: Role of NPs in Targeting Immunosuppressive TME
		12.7: Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	Chapter 13: Nanoparticle-Mediated Small RNA Deliveries for Molecular Therapies
		13.1: Introduction
			13.1.1: Introduction to Small RNA Deliveries
		13.2: Lipid-Based Nanovectors for Small RNA Deliveries
			13.2.1: Liposomes/Lipoplexes
			13.2.2: Stable Nucleic Acid Lipid Particles
		13.3: Structured Nanoparticles for Small RNA Deliveries
			13.3.1: Inorganic Nanoparticles for Small RNAs Deliveries
				13.3.1.1: Carbon nanoparticles for small RNA deliveries
				13.3.1.2: QD for small RNAs deliveries
				13.3.1.3: Gold nanoparticles/nanorods/nanostars for small RNAs deliveries
				13.3.1.4: Other inorganic nanoparticles in small RNA deliveries
			13.3.2: Organic Nanoparticles for Small RNA Deliveries
				13.3.2.1: Polymeric nanoparticles
		13.4: Natural Polymers
		13.5: Small RNA Deliveries in Clinical Trials
		13.6: Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	Chapter 14: Theranostics: A New Holistic Approach in Nanomedicine
		14.1: Introduction
		14.2: Bioconjugation Technology for Theranostic Materials
		14.3: Polymeric Nano and Microstructures
		14.4: Radio-Isotopic Nanomaterials
		14.5: Nano Carbon Structures
			14.5.1: Graphene as Theranostic Agent
			14.5.2: Nanodiamonds as Theranostic Agents
			14.5.3: Fullerene and Carbon Nanotubes
		14.6: Quantum Dots
		14.7: Gold Nanostructures
		14.8: Magnetic Nanoparticles
		14.9: Clinical Translations of Theranostic Materials
		14.10: Conclusion and Future Perspectives
Glossary
Index