Biomechanical and physiological basis of human nutrition

Front Cover 
......Page 1
Biochemical, Physiological, and Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition......Page 4
Copyright
......Page 5
Chapter Contributors......Page 6
Reviewers......Page 10
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK......Page 11
Acknowledgments......Page 13
Contents
......Page 14
UNIT I - Nutrients: Essential and Nonessential
......Page 22
DISCOVERY OF THE NUTRIENTS......Page 24
SETTING CRITERIA FOR ESSENTIALITY......Page 29
NUTRIENTS THAT DO NOT MEET THE STRICT CRITERIA FOR ESSENTIALITY......Page 31
USE OF NUTRIENTS AS PHARMACOLOGICAL AGENTS......Page 32
REFERENCES......Page 33
FUNCTIONAL FOODS AND DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS......Page 35
CAROTENOIDS......Page 37
POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS......Page 38
PLANT STEROLS/STANOLS......Page 40
POLYPHENOLICS......Page 41
PHYTOESTROGENS......Page 43
ISOTHIOCYANATES......Page 45
ORGANOSULFURS......Page 46
DIETARY FIBER......Page 47
PREBIOTICS/PROBIOTICS......Page 48
REFERENCES......Page 49
DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES......Page 55
DIETARY ADVICE: GOALS AND GUIDELINES......Page 59
FOOD GUIDES......Page 60
LABELING OF FOODS AND SUPPLEMENTS......Page 63
REFERENCES......Page 66
UNIT II - Structure and Properties of the Macronutrients......Page 70
MONOSACCHARIDES OR SUGAR RESIDUES......Page 71
OTHER CLASSES OF CARBOHYDRATE UNITS......Page 77
DISACCHARIDES AND OLIGOSACCHARIDES AND THEIR PROPERTIES......Page 79
POLYSACCHARIDES OF NUTRITIONAL IMPORTANCE......Page 82
GLYCOCONJUGATES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL INTEREST......Page 86
REFERENCES......Page 89
THE PROTEINOGENIC AMINO ACIDS......Page 90
MODIFICATIONS OF AMINO ACID SIDE CHAINS......Page 95
SYNTHESIS OF PEPTIDES AND PROTEINS......Page 96
PROTEIN STRUCTURE......Page 100
STABILIZATION OF PROTEIN CONFORMATIONS......Page 104
STABLE POSTTRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONS OF PROTEINS......Page 106
REGULATION OF THE AMOUNT OF PROTEIN AND ITS FUNCTIONAL STATE......Page 108
REFERENCES......Page 110
RECOMMENDED WEBSITES......Page 111
THE CHEMICAL CLASSES OF LIPIDS—THEIR STRUCTURE AND NOMENCLATURE......Page 112
FATTY ACIDS AND FOOD FATS......Page 131
PHYSICAL AND STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS......Page 133
REFERENCES......Page 139
UNIT III Digestion and Absorption of the Macronutrients......Page 142
GENERAL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE GI TRACT......Page 143
THE UPPER GI SYSTEM......Page 146
THE SMALL INTESTINE......Page 149
THE LARGE INTESTINE......Page 160
REFERENCES......Page 162
DIGESTION OF STARCHES......Page 163
DIGESTION OF DIETARY DISACCHARIDES......Page 167
EXPRESSION AND PROCESSING OF THE OLIGOSACCHARIDASES AND DISACCHARIDASES......Page 168
ABSORPTION OF MONOSACCHARIDES BY THE ENTEROCYTE......Page 170
FACTORS AFFECTING CARBOHYDRATE ASSIMILATION......Page 173
DEFICIENCIES OF CARBOHYDRATE ASSIMILATION......Page 174
REFERENCES......Page 179
RECOMMENDED READING......Page 182
THE GASTRIC PHASE: DENATURATION AND INITIAL HYDROLYSIS OF PROTEINS......Page 183
SMALL INTESTINAL LUMINAL PHASE: ACTIVATION AND ACTION OF PANCREATIC PROTEOLYTIC ENZYMES......Page 184
ABSORPTION OF FREE AMINO ACIDS AND SMALL PEPTIDES......Page 187
PHYSIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE DIETARY PEPTIDES......Page 194
DETERMINING DIETARY PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITY......Page 196
REFERENCES......Page 198
RECOMMENDED READING......Page 199
LUMINAL DIGESTION OF LIPIDS......Page 200
UPTAKE OF LIPID DIGESTION PRODUCTS BY THE ENTEROCYTES......Page 203
INTRACELLULAR METABOLISM OF ABSORBED LIPIDS......Page 206
DISORDERS OF INTESTINAL LIPID ABSORPTION......Page 210
SATIETY EFFECTS OF FAT FEEDING......Page 211
REFERENCES......Page 212
DEFINITION OF FIBER......Page 215
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF DIETARY FIBER......Page 216
PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF DIETARY FIBER......Page 218
MAJOR PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF FIBER AND STRUCTURE–FUNCTION RELATIONSHIPS......Page 219
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FIBER INTAKE AND TYPICAL INTAKES......Page 222
DIETARY FIBER INTAKE AND DISEASE......Page 223
DIETARY FIBER AND MICROBIOTA......Page 224
REFERENCES......Page 225
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 226
UNIT IV Metabolism of the Macronutrients
......Page 228
OVERVIEW OF TISSUE-SPECIFIC GLUCOSE METABOLISM......Page 230
TRANSPORT OF GLUCOSE ACROSS CELL MEMBRANES......Page 232
GLYCOLYSIS......Page 234
METABOLISM OF MONOSACCHARIDES OTHER THAN GLUCOSE......Page 238
GLUCONEOGENESIS......Page 241
REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS AND GLUCONEOGENESIS......Page 245
GLYCOGEN METABOLISM......Page 256
PYRUVATE DEHYDROGENASE COMPLEX AND CITRIC ACID CYCLE......Page 263
ELECTRON TRANSPORT AND OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION......Page 267
OTHER PATHWAYS OF CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM......Page 269
DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES AND TYPICAL INTAKES OF CARBOHYDRATES......Page 273
REFERENCES......Page 274
PROTEIN TURNOVER......Page 277
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS......Page 280
MOLECULAR MECHANISMS OF PROTEIN DEGRADATION......Page 291
ROLE OF HORMONES AND CYTOKINES IN REGULATION OF PROTEIN TURNOVER......Page 298
RESPONSES OF PROTEIN TURNOVER TO NUTRIENT SUPPLY......Page 300
PROTEIN TURNOVER IN GROWTH AND EXERCISE......Page 301
PROTEIN LOSS WITH DISUSE, INJURY, AND DISEASE......Page 302
CURRENT CHALLENGES IN PROTEIN METABOLISM......Page 304
REFERENCES......Page 305
OVERVIEW OF AMINO ACID METABOLISM......Page 308
AMINO ACID POOLS AND TRANSPORT......Page 310
AMINO ACIDS AS SIGNALING AGENTS......Page 312
TWO THEMES IN AMINO ACID METABOLISM......Page 313
INTERORGAN AMINO ACID METABOLISM......Page 322
METABOLISM OF THE DISPENSABLE AMINO ACIDS......Page 323
CATABOLISM OF INDISPENSABLE AMINO ACIDS......Page 331
NEUROACTIVE AMINES, HORMONES, AND PIGMENTS FORMED FROM AMINO ACIDS BY SPECIALIZED CELL TYPES......Page 344
NITROGEN EXCRETION......Page 346
REFERENCES......Page 348
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 351
CLASSIFICATION OF DISPENSABLE AND INDISPENSABLE AMINO ACIDS......Page 352
REQUIREMENT FOR PROTEIN (AMINO ACIDS)......Page 353
REQUIREMENTS FOR INDIVIDUAL AMINO ACIDS......Page 358
FACTORS THAT AFFECT AMINO ACID REQUIREMENTS......Page 362
FOOD PROTEINS AND PROTEIN QUALITY......Page 364
TYPICAL INTAKES OF PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PROTEIN TO ENERGY RATIOS......Page 371
HOW MUCH PROTEIN IS TOO MUCH PROTEIN?......Page 373
THE NEED FOR ADDITIONAL RESEARCH IN NUTRITIONAL SCIENCE......Page 375
REFERENCES......Page 376
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 377
BIOLOGICAL ROLES FOR LIPIDS......Page 378
TRANSFER OF ACETYL-COA FROM INSIDE THE MITOCHONDRIA TO THE CYTOSOL......Page 379
SYNTHESIS OF FATTY ACIDS OTHER THAN PALMITATE......Page 386
SYNTHESIS OF TRIACYLGLYCEROL......Page 388
HYDROLYSIS OF TRIACYLGLYCEROL IN LIPOPROTEINS, UPTAKE OF FATTY ACIDS, AND UTILIZATION OF FATTY ACIDS FOR ENERGY OR STORAGE AS TR.........Page 391
OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS......Page 392
Β-OXIDATION OF FATTY ACIDS WITH AN ODD NUMBER OF CARBONS OR WITH METHYL SIDE CHAINS TO GENERATE PROPIONYL-COA......Page 397
FORMATION OF KETONE BODIES FROM ACETYL-COA IN THE LIVER AS A FUEL FOR EXTRAHEPATIC TISSUES......Page 400
PHOSPHATIDIC ACID AND DIACYLGLYCEROL AS PRECURSORS OF THE COMMON PHOSPHOLIPIDS......Page 402
GENERATION OF SIGNALING MOLECULES BY REGULATED PHOSPHOLIPASES......Page 407
SYNTHESIS OF ETHER-LINKED GLYCEROLPHOSPHOLIPIDS......Page 408
RECOMMENDED READING......Page 413
OVERVIEW OF CHOLESTEROL METABOLISM......Page 414
SYNTHESIS OF CHOLESTEROL AND ISOPRENOIDS......Page 415
REGULATION OF CHOLESTEROL SYNTHESIS......Page 417
INTRACELLULAR TRAFFICKING OF CHOLESTEROL SYNTHESIZED IN CELL VERSUS CHOLESTEROL TAKEN UP FROM PLASMA IN LDL......Page 419
SYNTHESIS OF STEROID HORMONES FROM CHOLESTEROL......Page 420
CHOLESTEROL TRANSPORT DURING ENTEROHEPATIC RECIRCULATION......Page 421
LIPOPROTEINS AND THEIR METABOLISM......Page 422
POSTPRANDIAL LIPOPROTEIN METABOLISM......Page 428
ATHEROSCLEROTIC CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE......Page 431
CHRONIC EFFECTS OF DIETARY LIPIDS ON PLASMA LIPOPROTEINS AND LIPID METABOLISM......Page 433
RECOMMENDATIONS AND TYPICAL INTAKES FOR DIETARY FAT......Page 434
REFERENCES......Page 435
STRUCTURE OF POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS......Page 437
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID METABOLISM......Page 439
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF PLASMA AND TISSUE LIPIDS......Page 442
FUNCTIONS OF POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS......Page 444
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID INTAKE......Page 449
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID DEFICIENCY......Page 450
PEROXIDATION OF POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS......Page 452
REFERENCES......Page 453
COMMON ABBREVIATIONS......Page 455
REGULATION OF MACRONUTRIENT METABOLISM AT THE WHOLE-BODY LEVEL......Page 456
REGULATION OF MACRONUTRIENT METABOLISM AT THE CELLULAR LEVEL......Page 458
INTEGRATIVE PATHWAYS FOR REGULATION OF MACRONUTRIENT METABOLISM AT THE CELLULAR LEVEL......Page 462
THE METABOLIC FATES OF MACRONUTRIENTS......Page 465
STAGES OF GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS DURING PROLONGED STARVATION......Page 475
REFERENCES......Page 479
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 481
MUSCLE STRUCTURE......Page 482
MUSCLE FIBER TYPES......Page 484
THE ENERGY COST OF MOVEMENT......Page 485
FUEL UTILIZATION BY WORKING MUSCLE......Page 486
FUELS FOR SHORT BURSTS OF SUPER INTENSE PHYSICAL ACTIVITY......Page 492
NUTRITIONAL AND ERGOGENIC AIDS TO TRAINING AND/OR PERFORMANCE......Page 494
MUSCLE FUEL UTILIZATION AND HEALTH OUTCOMES......Page 496
SKELETAL MUSCLE ADAPTATIONS IN RESPONSE TO DISUSE, AGING, AND DISEASE AND THE CONSEQUENCES FOR FUEL UTILIZATION AND WELL‑BEING D.........Page 497
REFERENCES......Page 498
RECOMMENDED WEBSITE......Page 499
UNIT V Energy......Page 500
CELLULAR ENERGETICS......Page 502
WHOLE-ANIMAL ENERGETICS......Page 511
REFERENCES......Page 519
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 521
ENERGY BALANCE......Page 522
NUTRIENT BALANCE......Page 523
BEHAVIORAL ASPECTS OF CONTROL OF ENERGY INTAKE AND ENERGY EXPENDITURE......Page 525
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF ENERGY INTAKE AND ENERGY EXPENDITURE......Page 527
AFFERENT SIGNALS......Page 528
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM INTEGRATION OF SATIETY AND ADIPOSITY SIGNALS......Page 532
EFFERENT SIGNALS......Page 535
IMPORTANCE OF DIET AND EXERCISE IN PREVENTION OF OVERWEIGHT AND OBESITY......Page 536
REFERENCES......Page 537
ADIPOSE TISSUE IN ENERGY BALANCE......Page 540
OBESITY......Page 541
LIPODYSTROPHY......Page 550
DEFINITIONS OF PEM......Page 551
REFERENCES......Page 554
RECOMMENDED WEBSITES......Page 556
UNIT VI The Vitamins......Page 558
NIACIN HISTORY......Page 561
NIACIN PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTION......Page 562
PROTEINS THAT REQUIRE NIACIN......Page 563
NIACIN SOURCES, CHEMICAL STABILITY, AND ADMET......Page 565
BIOCHEMICAL ASSESSMENT OF NIACIN NUTRITURE, DIETARY REQUIREMENTS, AND HIGH-DOSE RESPONSES......Page 568
RIBOFLAVIN NOMENCLATURE, STRUCTURE, AND BIOCHEMISTRY......Page 569
RIBOFLAVIN PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTION......Page 570
PROTEINS THAT REQUIRE RIBOFLAVIN......Page 572
RIBOFLAVIN SOURCES, CHEMICAL STABILITY, AND ADMET......Page 573
BIOCHEMICAL ASSESSMENT OF RIBOFLAVIN NUTRITURE AND DIETARY REQUIREMENTS......Page 574
THIAMIN HISTORY......Page 575
THIAMIN PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTION......Page 576
THIAMIN SOURCES, CHEMICAL STABILITY, AND ADMET......Page 580
BIOCHEMICAL ASSESSMENT OF THIAMIN ­NUTRITURE AND DIETARY REQUIREMENTS......Page 581
INTERDEPENDENCE OF B3, B2, AND B1......Page 582
REFERENCES......Page 583
RECOMMENDED WEBSITES......Page 585
SOURCES OF FOLATE......Page 607
FOLATE ABSORPTION......Page 608
FOLATE TURNOVER......Page 609
METABOLIC FUNCTIONS OF FOLATE......Page 610
FOLATE DEFICIENCY: SYMPTOMS, METABOLIC BASES, AND DISEASE......Page 613
FOLATE STATUS ASSESSMENT......Page 616
FOLATE DIETARY RECOMMENDATIONS......Page 617
FOLATE TOXICITY......Page 618
CHOLINE ABSORPTION......Page 619
CHOLINE BIOAVAILABLITY......Page 620
METABOLISM OF CHOLINE......Page 621
PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF CHOLINE......Page 625
CHOLINE AND DISEASE......Page 627
CHOLINE HOMEOSTASIS......Page 628
DIETARY RECOMMENDATIONS, FACTORS AFFECTING DIETARY REQUIREMENTS, AND DIETARY CHOLINE INTAKE......Page 629
CHEMISTRY OF VITAMIN B12......Page 630
SOURCES OF VITAMIN B12......Page 631
PLASMA TRANSPORT, TISSUE UPTAKE, AND TURNOVER OF VITAMIN B12......Page 632
INTRACELLULAR METABOLISM AND METABOLIC FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN B12......Page 633
VITAMIN B12 DEFICIENCY: SYMPTOMS AND METABOLIC BASES......Page 635
VITAMIN B12 TOXICITY......Page 638
BIOAVAILABILITY OF VITAMIN B6......Page 639
METABOLIC FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN B6......Page 640
VITAMIN B6 DEFICIENCY: SYMPTOMS AND METABOLIC BASES......Page 642
DETECTION OF VITAMIN B6 DEFICIENCY......Page 643
VITAMIN B6 INTAKE......Page 644
REFERENCES......Page 645
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 650
HOLOCARBOXYLASES AND HOLOCARBOXYLASE SYNTHETASE......Page 652
BIOTIN-CONTAINING CARBOXYLASES......Page 653
BIOTIN AND GENE REGULATION......Page 656
BIOTIN DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION......Page 657
BIOTIN UPTAKE AND TRANSPORT IN TISSUES......Page 658
BIOTIN DEFICIENCY......Page 659
INBORN ERRORS OF BIOTIN METABOLISM......Page 660
TOXICITY......Page 661
METABOLISM OF PANTOTHENIC ACID TO COA AND ACP......Page 662
COA AND CARNITINE......Page 663
PANTOTHENIC ACID DEFICIENCY......Page 664
PURPORTED THERAPEUTIC USES OF PANTOTHENIC ACID......Page 665
REFERENCES......Page 666
ASCORBATE......Page 668
FOOD SOURCES OF VITAMIN C
......Page 670
VITAMIN C TRANSPORT......Page 671
ENZYMATIC FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN C......Page 676
NONENZYMATIC FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN C......Page 681
VITAMIN C AND HUMAN HEALTH......Page 686
DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES FOR VITAMIN C......Page 689
REFERENCES......Page 691
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 696
NOMENCLATURE OF VITAMIN K ACTIVE COMPOUNDS......Page 697
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF VITAMIN K......Page 698
ANTAGONISM OF VITAMIN K ACTION BY CLINICALLY USED INHIBITORS......Page 701
WARFARIN RESISTANCE AND THE VITAMIN K–DEPENDENT γ-CARBOXYLATION SYSTEM......Page 702
SOURCES OF VITAMIN K......Page 704
BIOAVAILABILITY......Page 705
PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLES OF VITAMIN K–DEPENDENT PROTEINS......Page 706
ASSESSMENT OF VITAMIN K STATUS......Page 707
REFERENCES......Page 708
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 711
ABSORPTION, TRANSPORT, AND METABOLISM OF VITAMIN E......Page 712
BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN E......Page 717
DEFICIENCY, HEALTH EFFECTS, AND BIOPOTENCY OF VITAMIN E......Page 719
FOOD SOURCES AND INTAKE OF VITAMIN E......Page 721
RECOMMENDED INTAKE OF VITAMIN E AND ASSESSMENT OF VITAMIN E STATUS......Page 722
REFERENCES......Page 723
CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF VITAMIN A AND CAROTENOIDS......Page 725
PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF VITAMIN A......Page 726
ABSORPTION, TRANSPORT, STORAGE, AND METABOLISM OF VITAMIN A AND CAROTENOIDS......Page 730
RETINOL-BINDING PROTEINS......Page 734
NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS OF VITAMIN A......Page 738
REFERENCES......Page 741
DIETARY AND ENDOGENOUS SOURCES OF VITAMIN D......Page 745
BIOLOGICAL ACTIONS OF VITAMIN D......Page 748
EVALUATION OF VITAMIN D STATUS......Page 750
SOLAR CONTRIBUTION TO VITAMIN D STATUS......Page 751
DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES FOR VITAMIN D......Page 752
VITAMIN D AND HEALTH OUTCOMES......Page 753
CONTROVERSY OVER RECOMMENDATIONS FOR VITAMIN D INTAKE AND STATUS TESTING......Page 756
REFERENCES......Page 757
UNIT VII Minerals and Water
......Page 761
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CALCIUM......Page 763
PHYSIOLOGICAL AND METABOLIC FUNCTIONS OF CALCIUM AND PHOSPHATE......Page 764
HORMONAL REGULATION OF CALCIUM AND PHOSPHATE METABOLISM......Page 768
CALCIUM AND PHOSPHATE HOMEOSTASIS......Page 773
DIETARY SOURCES, BIOAVAILABILITY, AND RECOMMENDED INTAKES FOR CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS......Page 778
CALCIUM AND PHOSPHATE DEFICIENCY, EXCESS, AND ASSESSMENT OF STATUS......Page 782
CLINICAL DISORDERS INVOLVING ALTERED CALCIUM AND PHOSPHATE LEVELS......Page 784
REFERENCES......Page 785
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 788
ABSORPTION, BIOAVAILABILITY, AND EXCRETION OF MAGNESIUM......Page 789
BODY MAGNESIUM CONTENT......Page 791
PHYSIOLOGICAL ROLES OF MAGNESIUM......Page 792
FOOD SOURCES, RECOMMENDED INTAKES, AND DIETARY INTAKES OF MAGNESIUM......Page 793
MAGNESIUM DEPLETION......Page 795
MAGNESIUM AND DISEASE RISK......Page 797
REFERENCES......Page 798
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 800
FUNCTIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF SODIUM, CHLORIDE, AND POTASSIUM......Page 801
SODIUM, CHLORIDE, AND POTASSIUM BALANCE......Page 805
REGULATION OF SODIUM, CHLORIDE, AND POTASSIUM BALANCE......Page 808
INTERACTIONS AMONG SYSTEMS IN VOLUME REGULATION......Page 813
SODIUM AND CHLORIDE IMBALANCE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES......Page 814
POTASSIUM IMBALANCE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES......Page 815
NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 816
REFERENCES......Page 819
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 821
BODY WATER COMPARTMENTS......Page 823
WATER BALANCE......Page 828
RENAL EXCRETION OF WATER......Page 832
REGULATION OF WATER BALANCE......Page 835
WATER IMBALANCE AND ITS CONSEQUENCES......Page 839
REFERENCES......Page 841
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 842
BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF IRON......Page 843
PROTEINS OF IRON TRANSPORT, STORAGE, AND RECYCLING......Page 845
INTERNAL IRON EXCHANGE AND CELLULAR IRON METABOLISM......Page 849
EXTERNAL IRON EXCHANGE, IRON ABSORPTION, AND SYSTEMIC IRON HOMEOSTASIS......Page 856
DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES FOR IRON......Page 860
IRON DEFICIENCY......Page 862
IRON EXCESS......Page 863
REFERENCES......Page 867
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 869
ZINC, COPPER, AND MANGANESE IN ENZYME SYSTEMS......Page 870
ABSORPTION, TRANSPORT, STORAGE, AND EXCRETION OF ZINC, COPPER, AND MANGANESE......Page 871
SELECTED FUNCTIONS OF ZINC, COPPER, AND MANGANESE......Page 880
ASSESSMENT OF ZINC, COPPER, AND ­MANGANESE STATUS AND DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS......Page 883
DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES AND FOOD SOURCES OF ZINC, COPPER, AND MANGANESE......Page 884
TOXICITY OF ZINC, COPPER, AND MANGANESE......Page 887
REFERENCES......Page 888
PRODUCTION AND METABOLISM OF THYROID HORMONES......Page 891
MECHANISM OF ACTION OF THYROID HORMONES......Page 896
PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF THYROID HORMONES......Page 900
IODINE DEFICIENCY......Page 903
DIETARY RECOMMENDATIONS, DIETARY INTAKE, AND TOXICITY......Page 906
REFERENCES......Page 907
RECOMMENDED WEBSITES......Page 908
CHEMISTRY OF SELENIUM......Page 909
UTILIZATION OF DIETARY SELENIUM......Page 912
THE SELENOPROTEINS......Page 916
NUTRITIONAL ESSENTIALITY OF SELENIUM......Page 920
SELENIUM TOXICITY......Page 922
HUMAN SELENIUM REQUIREMENTS......Page 923
SELENIUM INTAKES......Page 926
REFERENCES......Page 927
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 929
DENTAL FLUOROSIS AND DENTAL CARIES......Page 930
FLUORIDE INTAKE......Page 932
FLUORIDE PHYSIOLOGY......Page 934
ACUTE FLUORIDE TOXICITY......Page 937
CHRONIC FLUORIDE TOXICITY......Page 938
REFERENCES......Page 939
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 940
MOLYBDENUM......Page 941
BORON......Page 944
CHROMIUM......Page 946
BIOACTIVE ULTRATRACE ELEMENTS: NICKEL, VANADIUM, AND ARSENIC......Page 948
REFERENCES......Page 952
RECOMMENDED READINGS......Page 954
Index......Page 955