Biology, Cultivation and Applications of Mushrooms

Foreword
Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Part I: Applications and Cultivation of Mushrooms
	Chapter 1: Beauty, Diversity, and Potential Uses of Certain Macrofungi
		1.1 Introduction
			1.1.1 What Are Mushrooms?
			1.1.2 Stages in Life Cycle of Basidiomycetous Fungi
		1.2 Diversity and Uses of Certain Macrofungi
			1.2.1 Agaricus L.
			1.2.2 Amanita Pers.
			1.2.3 Bisporella Sacc.
			1.2.4 Calocybe Kühner ex Donk
			1.2.5 Calvatia Fr. (Giant Puff ball)
			1.2.6 Craterellus Sacc
			1.2.7 Cyathus Haller (Bird´s Nest Fungus)
			1.2.8 Ganoderma P. Karst. (Reishi Mushroom)
			1.2.9 Grifola Grey (Maitake Mushroom)
			1.2.10 Lentinus Fr. (Shiitake)
			1.2.11 Lenzites Fr.
			1.2.12 Morchella Dill. ex Pers.
			1.2.13 Mycena (Pers.) Roussel
			1.2.14 Phellinus Quel.
			1.2.15 Pleurotus (Fr.) P. Kumm. (Oyster Mushroom)
			1.2.16 Russula Pers.
			1.2.17 Termitomyces R. Heim
			1.2.18 Tremella Pers.
		1.3 Medicinal Uses of Macrofungi
			1.3.1 Isolation and Characterization of Secondary Metabolites
		1.4 Mcrofungi Used as Nutraceuticals
		1.5 Other Uses of Macrofungi
		1.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 2: Therapeutic Potential of Medicinal Mushrooms: Insights into Its Use Against Covid-19
		2.1 Introduction
		2.2 Potential Medicinal Mushrooms and Bioactive Compounds as Treatment For COVID-19
			2.2.1 Cordyceps sp. (Caterpillar Fungus)
			2.2.2 Ganoderma sp. (Lingzhi/Reishi)
			2.2.3 Inonotus obliquus (Chaga Mushroom)
			2.2.4 Lentinula edodes (Shiitake Mushroom)
		2.3 Other Mushrooms with Anti-Viral Activities, Bioactive Compounds and Their Mechanisms of Actions Relevant to COVID-19
		2.4 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 3: Recent Advances in the Discovery of Bioactive Metabolites from Xylaria Hill ex Schrank
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Bioactive Metabolites
			3.2.1 Antibacterial Metabolites
			3.2.2 Antifungal Metabolites
			3.2.3 Antimicrobial Metabolites
			3.2.4 Cytotoxic Metabolites
			3.2.5 Antimicrobial and Cytotoxic Metabolites
			3.2.6 Anti-inflammatory Metabolites
			3.2.7 Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) Inhibitors
			3.2.8 Immunosuppressive Metabolites
			3.2.9 Metabolites with Antioxidant Activities
		3.3 Other Bioactive Metabolites
		3.4 Cultivation Strategies of Xylaria
		3.5 VOC´s Produced by Xylaria
		3.6 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 4: Wild Medical Macrofungi in Montenegro: Diversity, Distribution, Ecology, and Uses
		4.1 Introduction
		4.2 The Characteristics of Vegetation of Montenegro
		4.3 Materials and Methods
		4.4 The Review of Taxa of Wild Medical Macrofungi in Montenegro with Their Distribution and Ecology
		4.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 5: Health Promoting and Pharmacological Compounds from Mushrooms
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Traditional Usage of Mushrooms as Protective and Health Boosting Food
		5.3 Nutritional and Bioactive Components of Mushrooms
			5.3.1 Proteins and Amino Acids
			5.3.2 Carbohydrates and Fiber
			5.3.3 Lipids
			5.3.4 Minerals
			5.3.5 Vitamins
			5.3.6 Polyphenols Including Flavonoids
		5.4 Mushrooms as Probiotics
		5.5 Antiviral Compounds from Mushrooms
		5.6 Nanoparticles from Mushrooms
		5.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 6: The Nutritional and Pharmacological Potential of Medicinal Mushroom ``Ganoderma lucidum (Lingzhi or Reishi)´´
		6.1 Introduction
		6.2 History: A Divine Medicinal Mushroom Ganoderma lucidum
		6.3 Cultivation of Ganoderma lucidum
		6.4 Chemical Composition and Nutritional Benefits
		6.5 Products and Formulations Developed from Ganoderma lucidum
		6.6 Pharmacologically Potential Bioactive Compounds
			6.6.1 Polysaccharide and Peptidoglycan
			6.6.2 Triterpenes
			6.6.3 Other Metabolites
		6.7 Therapeutic Properties OF Ganoderma lucidum
			6.7.1 Immunomodulatory and Anticancer Activity
			6.7.2 Antioxidant and Anti-inflammatory Activity
			6.7.3 Antiviral Activity
			6.7.4 Antimicrobial Activity
		6.8 Conclusion and Future Prospective Research
		References
	Chapter 7: Anti-Aging Properties of Medicinal Mushrooms in Systemic Aesthetic Medicine
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Skin Aging
		7.3 Bioactive Molecules from Fungal Extracts for Cosmetics
			7.3.1 Terpenes and Terpenoids
			7.3.2 Selenium
			7.3.3 Polysaccharides
		7.4 Cosmeceutics and Nutricosmetics
			7.4.1 Hydration Effect
			7.4.2 Anti-Oxidant Activity
			7.4.3 Anti-Wrinkles Activity
			7.4.4 Skin Clearance
		7.5 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 8: Diversity, Chemistry, and Environmental Contamination of Wild Growing Medicinal Mushroom Species as Sources of Biol...
		8.1 Introduction
			8.1.1 Search Strategy
		8.2 Overview of Bioactive Properties of Medicinal Mushrooms From Serbia and the Balkan Region
		8.3 Taxonomy of Genera Ganoderma, Coprinus, Pleurotus, Schizophyllum, Trametes, and Hericium
		8.4 Chemical Characterization and Biological Activity (Antioxidative, Antidiabetic, Ache Inhibitory)
			8.4.1 Ganoderma lucidum
			8.4.2 Ganoderma applanatum
			8.4.3 Ganoderma pfeifferi
			8.4.4 Ganoderma resinaceum
			8.4.5 Coprinus comatus
			8.4.6 Pleurotus ostreatus
			8.4.7 Schizophyllum commune
			8.4.8 Trametes versicolor
			8.4.9 Hericium erinaceus
			8.4.10 Cosmeceuticals
		8.5 Environmental Contamination
			8.5.1 Trace Element Accumulation
			8.5.2 Radionuclides Accumulation
		8.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 9: Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms: Some Aspects and Prospects
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Edible Mushrooms
			9.2.1 Agaricus L.
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body
			9.2.2 Auricularia Bull.
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body (Fig. 9.1b)
			9.2.3 Boletus L.
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body
			9.2.4 Calocybe indica Purkayastha and A. Chandra
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body (Fig. 9.1d)
			9.2.5 Coprinus
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body (Fig. 9.2a)
			9.2.6 Flammulina velutipes (Curtis) Singer
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body (Fig. 9.2b)
			9.2.7 Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Singer
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body (Fig. 9.2c)
			9.2.8 Lycoperdon P. Micheli
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body (Fig. 9.2d)
			9.2.9 Morchella Dill. ex Pers.
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body (Fig. 9.2e)
			9.2.10 Pleurotus (Fr.) P. Kumm.
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body (Fig. 9.2f)
			9.2.11 Termitomyces microcarpus (Berk. and Broome) R. Heim
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body (Fig. 9.2g)
			9.2.12 Tuber P. Micheli
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body (Fig. 9.2h)
			9.2.13 Volvariella Speg.
				Significance
				Occurrence
				Fruit Body (Fig. 9.2i)
		9.3 Medicinal Importance of Mushrooms
			9.3.1 Haematological Effects
			9.3.2 Antiviral Effects
			9.3.3 Antitumour Effects
			9.3.4 Renal and Cardio-Vascular Effects
			9.3.5 Carcinogenic Effects
			9.3.6 Hallucinogenicity
			9.3.7 Allergic Reactions
		9.4 Other Medicinal Values
		9.5 Nutritional Value of Mushrooms
			9.5.1 Protein
			9.5.2 Fat
			9.5.3 Carbohydrates
			9.5.4 Fibre
			9.5.5 Vitamins
			9.5.6 Minerals
			9.5.7 Nucleic Acid Content
		9.6 Mushroom Cultivation and Its Importance in Economy
			9.6.1 Cultivation of White Button Mushroom
				Spawn Production
					Grain Spawn (Fig. 9.3a)
				Mushroom Production
					Compost Preparation (Fig. 9.3b)
					Spawning (Fig. 9.3c)
					Casing
					Cropping (Fig. 9.4a)
					Canning (Fig. 9.4b)
			9.6.2 Brief Account of the Cultivation of Oyster and Paddy Straw Mushroom
				Volvariella
		References
	Chapter 10: Truffles: The Cultivation and Health Benefits
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Truffles and the Environment
			10.2.1 Truffles: Life Cycle
		10.3 Cultivation of Truffles
		10.4 Types, Morphology, and Appropriation
		10.5 Bioactive Compounds and Truffles
		10.6 Bioactivities of Truffles
			10.6.1 Anti-Tumor Efficacy
			10.6.2 Cancer Prevention Agent and Anti-Inflammatory Exercises
			10.6.3 Antimicrobial Activity
			10.6.4 Sexual Enhancer
		10.7 Other Uses
			10.7.1 As Food
			10.7.2 Truffles with Unique Nutritional Value
			10.7.3 Analysis of Enzyme Changes
		10.8 Distribution and Development
			10.8.1 Fame´s Stumbling Blocks
		10.9 Conclusion and Future Prospects
		References
	Chapter 11: Auricularia spp.: from Farm to Pharmacy
		11.1 Introduction
			11.1.1 Ethnobotanical Uses of Auricularia spp.
			11.1.2 Characters and Uses of Common Species
			11.1.3 Research on Cultivation, Nutritional and Medicinal Aspects of Auricularia spp.
		11.2 Cultivation of Auricularia spp.
			11.2.1 Mycelial Culture
			11.2.2 Spawn Production
			11.2.3 Fruit Body Production
		11.3 Nutritional Composition of Auricularia spp.
			11.3.1 Moisture
			11.3.2 Carbohydrate
			11.3.3 Proteins and Amino Acids
			11.3.4 Lipids and Fatty Acids
			11.3.5 Dietary Fiber
			11.3.6 Ash
			11.3.7 Vitamins
		11.4 Medicinal Effects of Auricularia spp.
			11.4.1 Antioxidant Activity
			11.4.2 Antimicrobial Activity
			11.4.3 Cytotoxic, Antitumor, and Anticancer Effect
			11.4.4 Immune-Modulation Activity
			11.4.5 Hypolipidemic/Hypocholesterolemic Effect
			11.4.6 Antidiabetic/Hypoglycemic Effect
			11.4.7 Hepatoprotective Effect
			11.4.8 Anticoagulant Activity
			11.4.9 Anti-Pesticide Effect
			11.4.10 Other Biological Activity
		11.5 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 12: Therapeutic Potential of Mushroom Bioactive Nutraceuticals
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Bioactive Molecules from Mushrooms
			12.2.1 Polysaccharides from Mushrooms
			12.2.2 Bioactive Proteins from Mushrooms
			12.2.3 Phenolic Compounds from Mushrooms
			12.2.4 Terpenes from Mushrooms
			12.2.5 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs) from Mushrooms
		12.3 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 13: Potential Uses of Mushrooms as Dietary Supplement to Enhance Memory
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Nervous System, Neurons and Memory in Human Beings
			13.2.1 Stress and Sleep
			13.2.2 How to Avoid Stress and Have Good Sleep?
			13.2.3 The Role of Genes in Sleep
		13.3 Power of Plants to Alter Consciousness
		13.4 Divinity in Mushrooms
		13.5 Memory and Use of Mushrooms
		13.6 Role of Mushrooms in Neurodegenerative Diseases
		13.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14: Beauty, Diversity, and Utility of Mushrooms on Postage Stamps
		14.1 Introduction: Mycophilately
			14.1.1 Philately: Art and Science of Stamp Collection
			14.1.2 Stamps: Certain Fungi and Their Discoveries
			14.1.3 Soma and Mushrooms on Stamps
			14.1.4 Stamps Showing Mycologists at Work
		14.2 Pigments: Imparting Beautiful Colors to the Mushrooms
			14.2.1 Quinones
			14.2.2 Carotenoids
			14.2.3 Betacyanins
		14.3 Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms (Toadstools)
		14.4 Mushrooms on Postage Stamps
			14.4.1 Amanita
			14.4.2 Armillaria
			14.4.3 Boletus
			14.4.4 Coprinus
			14.4.5 Inocybe
			14.4.6 Leccinum
			14.4.7 Lepiota
			14.4.8 Laccaria
			14.4.9 Morchella
			14.4.10 Paxillus
			14.4.11 Pholiota
			14.4.12 Pleurotus: Oyster mushroom
			14.4.13 Russla
			14.4.14 Tricholoma
		14.5 Other Fungi on Postal Stamps
			14.5.1 Clathrus
			14.5.2 Phallus: Stinkhorn
			14.5.3 Geastrum: Earth Star
			14.5.4 Calvatia: Giant Puffball
			14.5.5 Rammaria
		14.6 Conclusion
		References
Part II: Biology and Occurrence of Mushrooms
	Chapter 15: Citizen for Mushrooms
		15.1 Introduction: Prelude
		15.2 A Burn in the Foot: First Experience with a Medicinal Mushroom
		15.3 Taste of a Wild Mushroom: First Experience with an Edible Mushroom
		15.4 Joy of Identifying First Mushroom
		15.5 Fungal Taxonomist Par Excellence
		15.6 First Sight of Morels (Gucchi,  Mushroom)
		15.7 `Chicken´ of the Woods
		15.8 `Ghost´ on a Tree
		15.9 Largest and Heaviest Mushroom
		15.10 Mushroom at the Tree Line
		15.11 A Hippie Came for Fly Agaric
		15.12 Decorative Pieces from Mushrooms
		15.13 Monkeys Too Like Mushrooms
		15.14 Not Always Mushroom
		15.15 Forest Fire and Mushrooms
		15.16 Mythology and Mushroom
		15.17 Mushrooms Sold in Tribal Markets
		15.18 Innovative Mushroom Drier
		15.19 Medicinal Mushroom
		15.20 Accidental Discovery
		15.21 Fairy Ring
		15.22 Embarrassing Moments with Mushroom
		15.23 Mushroom in an Airport Duty Free Shop?
		15.24 Discredited
		15.25 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 16: Mushroom Biotechnology: Developing Cultivation Protocol for Four Different Mushrooms and Accessing Their Potential...
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Wild Edible Mushrooms
			16.2.1 Mushroom: The Magic Store of Health Benefits
			16.2.2 Chemicals Present in Medicinal Mushrooms and Their Biological Activities
		16.3 Molecular Characterization and Genetic Improvement
		16.4 Researches on Mushroom Cultivation
			16.4.1 Lenzites sterioides: Structure and Cultivation
				Studies on Growth of Three Different Fungi
			16.4.2 Trametes versicolor: Structure and Cultivation
			16.4.3 Lentinula edodes: Structure and Cultivation
				Cultivation of Lentinula edodes
			16.4.4 Ganoderma lucidum: Structure and Cultivation
		16.5 Remediation Studies
		16.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 17: The Tolimas and the Mushroom: Mycolatry in Pre-Hispanic Colombia
		17.1 Introduction
		17.2 Planes or Shamans Transformed into Fantastic Winged Animals?
		17.3 Mushroom Heads
		17.4 Shamans Transformed into Fantastic Beings with Characteristics of Jaguars and Bats
		17.5 Representations of Mushrooms or Penis?
		17.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 18: Lignocellulosic Waste Management Through Cultivation of Certain Commercially Useful and Medicinal Mushrooms: Recen...
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Terrestrial Sources of Lignocellulosic Wastes
			18.2.1 Agricultural Wastes
			18.2.2 Industrial Wastes
			18.2.3 Forest and Garden Wastes
			18.2.4 Municipal Solid Waste
			18.2.5 Other Lignocellulosic Wastes
		18.3 Enzymatic Potential of Mushrooms
		18.4 Lignocellulosic Mushrooms of Commercial and Medicinal Significance
		18.5 Growth Behavior of Mushrooms on Lignocellulosic Wastes
			18.5.1 Agrowastes from Farms and Industries
			18.5.2 Sawdust and Wood Shavings of Trees
			18.5.3 Leaves of Forest and Garden Trees
			18.5.4 Other Lignocellulosic Wastes
			18.5.5 Mixed Lignocellulosic Wastes
		18.6 Biological Efficiency of Mushrooms on Lignocellulosic Wastes
			18.6.1 Lignocellulosic Mushrooms Cultivated for Commercial Purpose
		18.7 Lignocellulosic Mushroom Cultivation Exclusively for Medicinal Purpose
			18.7.1 Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi Mushroom)
			18.7.2 Trametes versicolor (Turkey Tail)
		18.8 Lignocellulosic Mushrooms Having Potential for Commercialization
			18.8.1 Macrocybe gigantea (Giant Mushroom)
		18.9 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 19: Selective and Simultaneous Delignification Capacity of Wood Decay Fungus Trametes pini in Tectona grandis L. f. an...
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Materials and Methods
			19.2.1 Isolation of Timber Degrading Fungi
			19.2.2 Spawn Preparation
			19.2.3 Wooden Log Preparation
		19.3 Anatomical Studies
			19.3.1 Light Microscopy
		19.4 Results and Discussion
			19.4.1 Isolation of Timber Degrading Fungi
		19.5 Light Microscopic Study
			19.5.1 Decay Caused by Trametes pini
			19.5.2 Decay of T. crenulata Wood Caused by T. pini
		19.6 UltraStructural Studies
		19.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 20: Biological and Ecological Aspects of Rare Bioluminescent Mushrooms
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Bioluminescence in Fungi
		20.3 Taxonomic and Evolutionary Aspects of Fungal Bioluminescence
		20.4 Dispersal of Basidiospores by Insects
		20.5 Mechanism of Fungal Luminescence
		20.6 Luminous Fungi-Ecological Aspects
		20.7 Uses of Luminescent Fungi
		20.8 Conclusion
		References
Part III: Advances in Cultivation of Mushrooms
	Chapter 21: Cultivation of Two Edible Mushrooms and Need for Training of Mushroom Production Technology to Enhance Rural Econo...
		21.1 Introduction: Mushrooms as Food and Medicine
			21.1.1 Mushrooms as Food
			21.1.2 Lack of Awareness: Is It a Vegetable?
			21.1.3 Certain Side Effects
			21.1.4 Poor Marketing Setup
			21.1.5 Storage and Poor Shelf Life
		21.2 Nutritional Value of Mushrooms
		21.3 Training and Empowering the Farmers and Youth
		21.4 Cultivation of Paddy Straw Mushroom
			21.4.1 Indoor Cultivation
			21.4.2 Outdoor Cultivation as Inter Crop in Maize
		21.5 Cultivation of Oyster Mushroom
		21.6 Need for Training of Mushroom Production Technology
			21.6.1 Role of University/Institutes
			21.6.2 Processing and Preservation: Role of Markets
			21.6.3 Mushroom Business: Role of States
		21.7 Mushroom Cultivation: Role in Circular Economy
		21.8 Conclusions
		References
	Chapter 22: Cultivation and Medicinal Uses of Cordyceps militaris (L.) Link: A Revolutionary Entomopathogenic Fungus
		22.1 Introduction
			22.1.1 Structural Growth
			22.1.2 Cultivation at Industrial Scale
		22.2 Cultivation of C. militaris
			22.2.1 Isolation of an Anamorph
			22.2.2 Production of Fungal Tissue Culture
			22.2.3 Production of Liquid Tissue Culture with Shake Flask Fermentation
			22.2.4 Production of Substrate for Fungal Growth
			22.2.5 Harvest of C. militaris
		22.3 Medicinal Uses of Cordyceps militaris
			22.3.1 Treatment of Subclinical Illnesses
			22.3.2 Preventive Measures for Lifestyle Diseases
		22.4 Cordycepin
			22.4.1 Action Mechanism
		22.5 Tumour Apoptosis
			22.5.1 Resistance of Cancer Stem Cell
			22.5.2 Cordycepin Effects on Tumour Micro-Environment
			22.5.3 Suppression of Tumour Metastasis
		22.6 Cordycepin: Use in Treatment of Cancer
		22.7 Cordycepin: For Anti-viral Activity
		22.8 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 23: Cultivation Technology of the Fungus Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst
		23.1 Introduction
		23.2 Cultivation Techniques
			23.2.1 Natural Wood Log cultivation Method
			23.2.2 Artificial Cultivation or Synthetic Log/Sawdust/Polybag Technique
		23.3 Marketing Strategy
		23.4 Conclusion and Future Trends
		References
	Chapter 24: Problems of Fungal Contaminants and Cultivation Strategies of Certain Medicinal Mushrooms
		24.1 Introduction
		24.2 Mushrooms as a Source of Food and Medicine
		24.3 Improvement of New Strains
		24.4 Cultivation Strategies for Certain Mushrooms
			24.4.1 Cultivation of Agaricus bisporus
			24.4.2 Cultivation of Enoki (Flammulina velutipes)
			24.4.3 Cultivation of Silver Ear (Tremella fuciformis)
			24.4.4 Cultivation of Volvariella volvacea (Paddy Straw Mushroom)
		24.5 Problems of Fungal Contaminants
		24.6 Regulation of Other Growing Conditions
		24.7 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 25: Biochemical Aspects and Cultivation of Medicinal Mushroom Pleurotus florida on Cellulosic Waste of Cotton and Paper
		25.1 Introduction: Fungi and Mushrooms as Nutraceuticals
			25.1.1 Soma for Better Health and Longevity
			25.1.2 Oyster Mushroom: Therapeutic Uses
		25.2 Commercial Cultivation of Mushrooms
		25.3 Waste Management Through Mushroom Cultivation
			25.3.1 Different Substrates Used: Effect on Biological Efficiency
			25.3.2 Treated Substrates for Better Mushroom Yield
		25.4 Role of Supplements in Mushroom Production
		25.5 Mushroom Production: Role Of Enzymes
		25.6 Genes Working for Lignocellulose Degradation
		25.7 Oyster Mushroom Cultivation: Use of Organic Cellulose Waste
			25.7.1 Organism Used and Culture Conditions
			25.7.2 Cultivation Method: Use of Waste Paper and Cotton Waste
			25.7.3 Cultivation: Results and Discussion
		25.8 Conclusion
		References
Mushroom Index
Subject Index