Biofilms, Infection, and Antimicrobial Therapy

Cover Page......Page 1
Title Page......Page 4
ISBN 082472643X......Page 5
Preface......Page 8
Table of Contents......Page 10
Contributors......Page 15
Section I Biofilms: Background, Significance, and Roles of Catheters and Indwelling Devices......Page 20
1.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 22
1.2.1 REVERSIBLE ATTACHMENT......Page 23
1.2.2 IRREVERSIBLE ATTACHMENT......Page 24
1.2.4 ROLE OF QUORUM SENSING IN BIOFILM FORMATION......Page 25
1.3 THE UBIQUITOUS CHALLENGE......Page 26
1.4.1 SLOW PENETRATION OF ANTIBIOTICS BY BIOFILM EXOPOLYMERS......Page 28
1.4.4 EXPRESSION OF RESISTANCE GENES IN BIOFILMS......Page 29
1.4.6 MULTICELLULAR NATURE OF THE BIOFILM COMMUNITY......Page 30
1.5.1 QUORUM SENSING ANALOG USED FOR BIOFILM TREATMENT......Page 31
1.5.3 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL TREATMENTS FOR BIOFILMS......Page 32
REFERENCES......Page 33
2.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 40
2.3 COST PER BIOFILM ASSOCIATED DISEASE (DRG BASED, ICD-9 CODES, ETC.)......Page 44
2.3.1 MEDICAL COST......Page 45
2.4 ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE......Page 51
2.5 STRATEGIES TO ADDRESS THE INCREASE IN BIOFILM DISEASES, PARTICULARLY ANTIBIOTIC ASSOCIATED RESISTANCE......Page 53
2.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 55
REFERENCES......Page 56
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 58
3.2 MAGNITUDE OF IMD-RELATED INFECTIONS......Page 59
3.3.1 DEVICE RELATED FACTORS......Page 61
3.3.2 THE ROLE OF CONDITIONING FILMS......Page 62
3.3.3 BACTERIA–BIOMATERIAL INTERACTIONS......Page 63
3.4.1 CELL DETACHMENT......Page 64
3.4.2 ENDOTOXIN PRODUCTION......Page 65
3.4.3 RESISTANCE TO THE HOST IMMUNE RESPONSE......Page 66
REFERENCES......Page 67
CONTENTS......Page 70
4.2 MEDICAL DEVICE BIOCOMPATIBILITY......Page 71
4.3.1 SILICONE......Page 72
4.3.3 LATEX......Page 73
4.3.7 COPOLYMERS......Page 74
4.4 CONDITIONING FILM FORMATION ON MEDICAL DEVICE BIOMATERIALS......Page 75
4.5 MICROBIAL ADHERENCE TO MEDICAL DEVICES......Page 76
4.5.2 STAGE 2. INITIAL ADHESION......Page 77
4.5.4 STAGE 4. COLONIZATION......Page 79
4.6.1 THE MICROORGANISM: SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS......Page 80
4.6.2 THE BIOMATERIAL SURFACE......Page 81
4.6.3 THE SUSPENDING MEDIUM......Page 82
4.7.1 THE GASEOUS ATMOSPHERE IN THE OROPHARYNX......Page 83
4.7.2 THE SALIVARY PELLICLE AND ADHERENCE......Page 84
REFERENCES......Page 85
Section II Biofilm-Forming Pathogens......Page 90
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 92
5.2 COLONIZATION OF ABIOTIC MATERIALS BY E. coli......Page 93
5.4 SURFACE SENSING AND BIOFILM DEPENDENT GENE EXPRESSION......Page 95
5.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS: WHICH WAY TOWARDS ANTI-BIOFILM TREATMENTS?......Page 96
REFERENCES......Page 97
6.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 100
6.2 S. aureus BIOFILM PATHOGENESIS AND PHYSIOLOGY......Page 102
6.3 MOLECULES CONTRIBUTING TO S. aureus ADHESION......Page 103
6.4.1 POLYSACCHARIDE INTERCELLULAR ADHESIN/POLYMERIC N-ACETYL GLUCOSAMINE......Page 107
6.4.2 ALPHA-TOXIN......Page 108
6.4.3 BIOFILM ASSOCIATED PROTEIN......Page 109
6.5 S. aureus GLOBAL GENE REGULATORS......Page 110
6.5.1 AGR LOCUS......Page 111
6.5.2 SARA......Page 113
6.5.3 σB......Page 114
6.6.2 MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY OF S. aureus BIOFILM DETERMINANTS......Page 115
6.6.3 SMALL COLONY VARIANTS IN S. aureus......Page 117
6.7 APPROACHES TO PREVENTION AND THERAPY......Page 118
REFERENCES......Page 119
7.2 TAXONOMY OF THE GENUS STAPHYLOCOCCUS......Page 128
7.3 CLINICAL RELEVANCE OF COAGULASE-NEGATIVE STAPHYLOCOCCI......Page 131
7.4 STAPHYLOCOCCAL BIOFILM FORMATION......Page 134
7.5 PRIMARY ATTACHMENT OF COAGULASE-NEGATIVE STAPHYLOCOCCI TO BIOMATERIALS......Page 136
7.6 MECHANISMS OF BIOFILM ACCUMULATION......Page 140
7.7 ROLE OF BIOFILM FORMATION AND POLYSACCHARIDE INTERCELLULAR ADHESIN IN S. epidermidis VIRULENCE......Page 143
7.9 REGULATION OF THE EXPRESSION OF BIOFILM FORMATION IN S. epidermidis......Page 145
7.10 RELATION OF BIOFILM FORMATION TO ANTIBIOTIC SUSCEPTIBILITY......Page 149
REFERENCES......Page 151
8.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 174
8.3 Pseudomonas aeruginosa......Page 175
8.4 BIOFILMS......Page 176
8.5 CYSTIC FIBROSIS, P. aeruginosa AND BIOFILMS......Page 178
8.6 QUORUM SENSING......Page 180
8.7 THERAPIES AND POTENTIAL VACCINES......Page 182
REFERENCES......Page 184
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 190
9.2 CANDIDA BIOFILMS AND INFECTIONS......Page 191
9.3 SUCEPTIBILITY OF CANDIDA BIOFILMS TO ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS......Page 196
9.4 MECHANISMS OF RESISTANCE OF CANDIDA BIOFILMS TO ANTIFUNGAL THERAPY......Page 197
9.5 FUTURE OUTLOOK IN THE TREATMENT OF CANDIDA BIOFILMS......Page 199
REFERENCES......Page 200
Section III Emerging Issues, Assays, and Models......Page 204
CONTENTS......Page 206
10.2 STAPHYLOCOCCAL BIOFILM......Page 207
10.3.1 ATLE......Page 208
10.3.3 BIOFILM ASSOCIATED PROTEIN (BAP)......Page 209
10.4 ica OPERON......Page 210
10.5 GENETIC FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO REGULATION OF ica......Page 211
10.5.2 SIGB......Page 212
10.5.5 ADDITIONAL FACTORS......Page 213
10.5.6 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS......Page 214
10.6 PHENOTYPIC VARIATION......Page 215
REFERENCES......Page 217
11.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 224
11.2 GRAM-NEGATIVE AHL SIGNALS......Page 226
11.3 FURANOSYL BORATE DIESTER SIGNAL......Page 232
11.4 GRAM-POSITIVE PEPTIDE SIGNALS......Page 235
REFERENCES......Page 245
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 260
12.2 THE CULPRIT—PERSISTER CELLS......Page 261
12.3 PERSISTERS AS SPECIALIZED ALTRUISTIC SURVIVOR CELLS......Page 264
12.5 PERSISTER GENES......Page 265
REFERENCES......Page 272
13.1 BIOFILMS AND THEIR PROPERTIES......Page 276
13.2.1 ABIOTIC SURFACES......Page 277
13.2.2 BIOTIC SURFACES......Page 278
13.3.1 ANTIMICROBIAL PENETRATION OF THE BIOFILM MATRIX......Page 279
13.3.3 PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY IN THE BIOFILM......Page 280
13.4 BIOFILM SUSCEPTIBILITY ASSAYS: THE NEED FOR A MINIMAL BIOFILM ERADICATION CONCENTRATION (MBEC) VALUE......Page 281
REFERENCES......Page 284
14.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 290
14.2.1 Campylobacter jejuni ADHESION AND INVASION OF EPITHELIAL CELLS......Page 291
14.2.2 CULTURE-INDUCED BROAD AGGLUTINATION OF UNRELATED LIOR SEROTYPE STRAINS......Page 292
14.2.4 CONGO RED DYE BINDING......Page 293
14.3.1 BILE EFFECTS ON OTHER Vibrio parahaemolyticus VIRULENCE FACTORS......Page 294
14.3.3 ENVRIRONMENTAL REGULATION OF CAPSULE FORMATION AND DISEASE......Page 295
14.4 EFFECT OF BIOFILM FORMATION ON ANTIBIOTIC ACTIVITY......Page 296
REFERENCES......Page 297
CONTENTS......Page 308
15.2 STAPHYLOCOCCAL BIOFILMS......Page 309
15.4 EX VIVO MODELS......Page 310
15.5.1 SUBCUTANEOUS FOREIGN BODY INFECTION MODEL......Page 311
15.5.2 INTRAVASCULAR CATHETER INFECTION MODEL......Page 314
15.5.3 TISSUE CAGE MODEL......Page 315
15.5.4 ENDOCARDITIS MODELS......Page 316
5.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 317
REFERENCES......Page 318
16.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 324
16.3 INNATE IMMUNITY......Page 325
16.4 ACQUIRED IMMUNITY......Page 327
16.5 ORGAN SYSTEM DEFENSE......Page 328
16.6.1 RESPIRATORY TRACT......Page 329
16.6.2 ORAL CAVITY......Page 330
16.6.3 URINARY TRACT......Page 332
16.6.5 OTHER ORGAN SYSTEMS......Page 333
16.7 FOREIGN IMPLANTS AND DEVICES......Page 334
16.8 STAPHYLOCOCCAL BIOFILMS......Page 336
16.9 FUTURE THERAPEUTIC DIRECTIONS......Page 337
REFERENCES......Page 339
Section IV Overview of Antiinfective Agents and Clinical Therapy......Page 348
17.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 350
17.2 PHARMACODYNAMIC PARAMETERS......Page 351
17.2.1 FLUOROQUINOLONES......Page 353
17.2.2 AMINOGLYCOSIDES......Page 354
17.2.3 β-LACTAMS......Page 355
17.2.4 MACROLIDES......Page 356
17.2.5 GLYCOPEPTIDES......Page 357
17.3.1 IN VITRO MODELS......Page 358
17.3.2 BIOFILM MODELS......Page 359
17.4 THE FUTURE......Page 362
REFERENCES......Page 363
18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 372
18.2 AMINOGLYCOSIDES......Page 374
18.3 MACROLIDES......Page 375
18.5 LINEZOLID......Page 377
18.7 RIFAMPIN......Page 378
18.8 CONCLUSIONS......Page 379
REFERENCES......Page 380
19.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 382
19.2 β-LACTAM ANTIBIOTICS, MECHANISM OF ACTION AND RESISTANCE......Page 383
19.3 BIOFILMS: DEVELOPMENT AND ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE......Page 386
19.4.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 388
19.4.2 FOREIGN BODY/IMPLANTED MEDICAL DEVICE INFECTIONS......Page 389
19.4.3 URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS......Page 390
19.4.4 OTITIS MEDIA......Page 391
19.4.5 CYSTIC FIBROSIS......Page 392
19.4.6 STREPTOCOCCAL PHARYNGITIS......Page 393
19.5 β-LACTAM USE IN PREVENTING BIOFILM INFECTIONS......Page 394
19.6 CONCLUSIONS......Page 395
REFERENCES......Page 396
20.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 404
20.2 VANCOMYCIN......Page 405
20.3 TEICOPLANIN......Page 406
20.5 CHARACTERIZATION OF GLYCOPEPTIDE ANTIBIOTICS AGAINST BIOFILM BACTERIA......Page 407
20.5.1 FINDINGS WITH IN-VITRO MODELS......Page 408
20.5.2 FINDINGS WITH IN-VIVO MODELS......Page 409
20.6.1 INTRAVASCULAR CATHETER-ASSOCIATED INFECTIONS......Page 410
20.6.3 INFECTIOUS ENDOCARDITIS......Page 411
REFERENCES......Page 412
21.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 420
21.2 COMMON BIOFILM-FORMING MICROBIAL PATHOGENS......Page 421
21.3.1 INTRINSIC RESISTANCE OF MICROORGANISMS......Page 422
21.4 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS......Page 423
REFERENCES......Page 424
22.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 428
22.2 PATHOGENESIS AND MICROBIAL FEATURES OF VASCULAR CATHETER INFECTIONS......Page 429
22.3 DIAGNOSIS OF CATHETER ASSOCIATED INFECTION......Page 431
22.4 MANAGEMENT OF VASCULAR CATHETER INFECTIONS......Page 433
22.5 PREVENTION OF VASCULAR CATHETER INFECTIONS......Page 437
REFERENCES......Page 441
CONTENTS......Page 446
23.2.1 Staphylococcus Aureus......Page 447
23.2.2 Streptococcus viridans, Streptococcus bovis, AND OTHER STREPTOCOCCI (NON-ENTEROCOCCUS)......Page 455
23.2.3 ENTEROCOCCI......Page 457
23.3 SURGICAL TREATMENT......Page 459
23.4 SURGICAL INDICATIONS......Page 460
23.4.3 RISK OF EMBOLIZATION......Page 461
23.5 TREATMENT OF INFECTED ELECTROPHYSIOLOGIC CARDIAC DEVICES......Page 462
REFERENCES......Page 463
24.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 468
24.2 PROSTHETIC JOINT INFECTIONS......Page 469
24.2.1 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES......Page 470
24.2.2 ANTIMICROBIALS......Page 476
24.2.3 ANTIBIOTIC-IMPREGNATED DEVICES......Page 477
24.2.4 SPECIAL SITUATIONS......Page 479
24.3 FRACTURE FIXATION DEVICES INFECTION......Page 483
24.3.1 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES......Page 484
24.4 SPINAL DEVICES INFECTION......Page 485
24.4.1 MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES......Page 486
REFERENCES......Page 487
A......Page 498
B......Page 499
C......Page 502
F......Page 504
I......Page 505
K,L,M......Page 507
N,O,P......Page 508
S......Page 510
V......Page 512
FIGURE 2.2 Mean charge per DRG.......Page 514
FIGURE 2.3 Loss per incidence for Medicare charges.......Page 515
FIGURE 6.1 Scanning laser confocal microscopy image showing leukocytes......Page 516
FIGURE 9.1 C. albicans biofilm development on inert surfaces.........Page 517
FIGURE 10.3 Colonies of biofilm forming (“crusty” uppermost colony) and nonbiofilm forming (“smooth”) S. epidermidis on Congo red agar.......Page 518
FIGURE 12.5 Gene expression profile of isolated persisters. E. coli......Page 519
Back Page......Page 520