Biodiesel Production: Feedstocks, Catalysts, and Technologies

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
Preface
List of Contributors
An Overview of Biodiesel Production
Part 1 Biodiesel Feedstocks
	Chapter 1 Advances in Production of Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats
		1.1 Introduction
		1.2 History of the Use of Vegetable Oil in Biodiesel
		1.3 Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production
			1.3.1 Generations of Biodiesel
			1.3.2 First-Generation Biodiesel
			1.3.3 Second-Generation Biodiesel
			1.3.4 Third-Generation Biodiesel
		1.4 Basics of the Transesterification Reaction
		1.5 Variables Affecting Transesterification Reaction
		1.6 Alkaline-Catalyzed Transesterification
		1.7 Acid-Catalyzed Transesterification
		1.8 Enzymatic-Catalyzed Transesterification
		1.9 Fuel Properties and Quality Specifications for Biodiesel
		1.10 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 2 Green Technologies in Valorization of Waste Cooking Oil to Biodiesel
		2.1 Introduction
			2.1.1 The Necessity for Biodiesel
			2.1.2 Sourcing the Correct Precursor
		2.2 Importance of Valorization
		2.3 Purification and Characterization
		2.4 Transesterification: A Comprehensive Look
		2.5 Conversion Techniques
			2.5.1 Traditional Conversion Approaches
			2.5.2 Modern Conversion Approaches
		2.6 Economics and Environmental Impact
		2.7 Conclusion and Perspectives
		References
	Chapter 3 Non-edible Oils for Biodiesel Production: State of the Art and Future Perspectives
		3.1 Introduction
		3.2 Vegetable Non-edible Oils
			3.2.1 General Cultivation Data
			3.2.2 Composition and Chemical–Physical Properties of Biodiesel Obtained from Non-edible Vegetable Oils
			3.2.3 Biodiesel Production from Non-edible Vegetable Oil
			3.2.4 Criticisms Related to Non-edible Oils
		3.3 Future Perspectives of Non-edible Oils: Oils from Waste
		3.4 Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 4 Algal Oil as a Low-Cost Feedstock for Biodiesel Production
		4.1 Introduction
			4.1.1 Microalgae for Biodiesel Production
		4.2 Lipid and Biosynthesis of Lipid in Microalgae
			4.2.1 Lipid Biosynthesis
			4.2.2 Lipid Extraction
		4.3 Optimization of Lipid Production in Microalgae
			4.3.1 Nitrogen Stress
			4.3.2 Phosphorous Stress
			4.3.3 pH Stress
			4.3.4 Temperature Stress
			4.3.5 Light
		4.4 Conclusion
		References
Part 2 Different Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production
	Chapter 5 Homogeneous Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production
		5.1 Introduction
		5.2 Transesterification in Biodiesel Synthesis
		5.3 Homogeneous Catalyst in Biodiesel Synthesis
			5.3.1 Homogeneous Acid Catalyst
			5.3.2 Homogeneous Base Catalyst
		5.4 Properties of Biodiesel Produced by Homogeneous Acid and Base-Catalyzed Reactions
		5.5 Relevance of Homogeneous Acid and Base Catalysts in Biodiesel Synthesis
		5.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 6 Application of Metal Oxides Catalyst in Production of Biodiesel
		6.1 Basic Metal Oxide
			6.1.1 Monobasic Metal Oxide
			6.1.2 Multibasic Metal Oxide
			6.1.3 Active Site-Doped Basic Metal Oxide
			6.1.4 Mechanism of Transesterification Catalyzed by Basic Metal Oxide
		6.2 Acid Metal Oxide
			6.2.1 Monoacid Metal Oxide
			6.2.2 Multiacid Metal Oxide
			6.2.3 Supported on Metal Organic Framework
			6.2.4 Mechanism of Transesterification/Esterification Catalyzed by Acid Metal Oxide
		6.3 Deactivation of Metal Oxide
		References
	Chapter 7 Supported Metal/Metal Oxide Catalysts in Biodiesel Production: An Overview
		7.1 Introduction
		7.2 Supported Catalyst
		7.3 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Alumina
		7.4 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Zeolite
		7.5 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on ZnO
		7.6 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Silica
		7.7 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Biochar
			7.7.1 Solid Acid Catalysts
			7.7.2 Solid Alkali Catalysts
		7.8 Metals and Metal Oxide Supported on Metal Organic Frameworks
		7.9 Metal/Metal Oxide Supported on Magnetic Nanoparticles
		7.10 Summary
		References
	Chapter 8 Mixed Metal Oxide Catalysts in Biodiesel Production
		8.1 Introduction
		8.2 Previous Research
		8.3 State of the Art
			8.3.1 Solid Acid MMO Catalysts
			8.3.2 Solid Base MMO Catalysts
			8.3.3 Solid Bifunctional MMO Catalysts
		8.4 Discussion
		8.5 Conclusion
		8.6 Symbols and Nomenclature
		References
	Chapter 9 Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Production
		9.1 Introduction
		9.2 Transesterification of Vegetable Oils
		9.3 Conventional Catalysts Used in Biodiesel Production: Advantages and Limitations
			9.3.1 Homogeneous Catalysts
			9.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts
			9.3.3 Biocatalysts
		9.4 Role of Nanotechnology in Biodiesel Production
		9.5 Different Nanocatalysts in Biodiesel Production
			9.5.1 Metal-Based Nanocatalysts
			9.5.2 Carbon-Based Nanocatalysts
			9.5.3 Zeolites/Nanozeolites
			9.5.4 Magnetic Nanocatalysts
			9.5.5 Nanoclays
			9.5.6 Other Nanocatalysts
		9.6 Conclusion
		Acknowledgment
		References
	Chapter 10 Sustainable Production of Biodiesel Using Ion-Exchange Resin Catalysts
		10.1 Introduction
		10.2 Features of Ion-Exchange Resin Catalysts
		10.3 Cation-Exchange Resin Catalyst
			10.3.1 Notes of Caution When Comparing the Activity of Resins with Different Properties
			10.3.2 Reversible Reduction of Resin Catalytic Activity by Water
			10.3.3 Search for Operating Conditions for Maximum Productivity Rather than Maximum Catalytic Activity
			10.3.4 Challenges Regarding One-Step Reaction with Simultaneous Esterification and Transesterification Catalyzed by Cation-Exchange Resin
		10.4 Anion-Exchange Resin Catalysts
			10.4.1 Requirements for High Catalytic Activity in the Transesterification of Triglycerides
			10.4.2 Analysis of Previous Studies
			10.4.3 Decreased Catalytic Activity and Regeneration Method
			10.4.4 Additional Functions Unique to Anion-Exchange Resins
		10.5 Summary
		References
	Chapter 11 Advances in Bifunctional Solid Catalysts for Biodiesel Production
		11.1 Introduction
		11.2 Application of Solid Bifunctional Catalyst in Biodiesel Production
			11.2.1 Acid–Base Bifunctional Catalysts
			11.2.2 Bifunctional Acid Catalyst
			11.2.3 Biowaste-Derived Bifunctional Catalyst
		11.3 Summary and Concluding Remarks
		Acknowledgment
		References
	Chapter 12 Application of Catalysts Derived from Renewable Resources in Production of Biodiesel
		12.1 Introduction
		12.2 Potential Renewable Resources for Production of Biodiesel Catalysts
			12.2.1 Animal Resources
			12.2.2 Plant Resources
			12.2.3 Natural Resources
			12.2.4 Industrial Waste Resources
		12.3 Advantages, Disadvantages, and Challenges of These Types of Catalyst for Biodiesel Production
		Acknowledgment
		References
	Chapter 13 Biodiesel Production Using Ionic Liquid-Based Catalysts
		13.1 Introduction
		13.2 Mechanism of IL-Catalyzed Biodiesel Production
		13.3 Acidic and Basic Ionic Liquids (AILs/BILs) as Catalyst in Biodiesel Production
		13.4 Supported Ionic Liquids in Biodiesel Production
		13.5 IL Lipase Cocatalysts
		13.6 Optimization and Novel Biodiesel Production Technologies Using ILs
		13.7 Recyclability of the Ionic Liquids on Biodiesel Production
			13.7.1 Recovery of ILs
			13.7.2 Reuse of Ionic Liquids
		13.8 Kinetics of IL-Catalyzed Biodiesel Production
		13.9 Techno-Economic Analysis and Environmental Impact Analysis of Biodiesel Production Using Ionic Liquid as Catalyst
		13.10 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 14 Metal–Organic Frameworks (MOFs) as Versatile Catalysts for Biodiesel Synthesis
		14.1 Introduction
			14.1.1 Metal-Containing Secondary Building Units
			14.1.2 Organic Linker
			14.1.3 Pore Volume
		14.2 Biodiesel Synthesis Over MOF Catalysts
			14.2.1 Transesterification Reaction
			14.2.2 Esterification of Carboxylic Acids
		14.3 Conclusion
		References
Part 3 Technologies, By-product Valorization and Prospects of Biodiesel Production
	Chapter 15 Upstream Strategies (Waste Oil Feedstocks, Nonedible Oils, and Unicellular Oil Feedstocks like Microalgae)
		15.1 Introduction
			15.1.1 Classification of Biodiesel
			15.1.2 Commercial Production of Biodiesel
		15.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks
			15.2.1 Edible Oils as Feedstock for Biodiesel Production
			15.2.2 Nonedible Oils as Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production
			15.2.3 Waste Feedstocks (Waste Cooking Oils, Waste Animal Fats, Waste Coffee Ground Oil, Olive Pomace)
			15.2.4 Unicellular Oil Feedstocks (Microalgae, Yeasts, Cyanobacteria)
		15.3 Composition of Oils and Fats
		15.4 Methods for Oil Extraction
			15.4.1 Mechanical Extraction
			15.4.2 Solvent Extraction
			15.4.3 Enzymatic Extraction
		15.5 Purification of Oils and Fats
			15.5.1 Deacidification
			15.5.2 Winterization
			15.5.3 Demetallization
			15.5.4 Degumming
		15.6 Production of Biodiesel
			15.6.1 Catalysts for Biodiesel Production
			15.6.2 Homogeneous Catalysts
			15.6.3 Heterogeneous Catalysts
		15.7 Future Prospects
		References
	Chapter 16 Mainstream Strategies for Biodiesel Production
		16.1 Introduction
		16.2 Mainstream Strategies and Technology for Biodiesel Production
			16.2.1 Current Mainstream Operation
			16.2.2 Process Mainstream for Biodiesel Production Based on the Reactor Types
		16.3 Future Prospects and Challenges
		Acknowledgment
		References
	Chapter 17 Downstream Strategies for Separation, Washing, Purification, and Alcohol Recovery in Biodiesel Production
		17.1 Introduction
			17.1.1 Factors Affecting Biodiesel Yield
			17.1.2 Transesterification Reaction Conditions
			17.1.3 Separation After FAME Conversion
			17.1.4 Washing
		17.2 Glycerol Separation and Refining
		17.3 Membrane Reactors
		17.4 Methanol Recovery
		17.5 Additization
		17.6 Conclusion
		References
	Chapter 18 Heterogeneous Catalytic Routes for Bio-glycerol-Based Acrylic Acid Synthesis
		18.1 Introduction
		18.2 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Propylene
		18.3 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Glycerol
			18.3.1 Glycerol Dehydration to Acrolein
			18.3.2 Acrylic Acid Synthesis from Glycerol
		18.4 Conclusion
		Acknowledgments
		References
	Chapter 19 Sustainability, Commercialization, and Future Prospects of Biodiesel Production
		19.1 Introduction
		19.2 Biodiesel as a Promising Renewable Energy Carrier
		19.3 Overview of the Biodiesel Production Process
		19.4 Evolution in the Feedstocks Used for the Sustainable Production of Biodiesel
		19.5 First-Generation Biodiesel and the Challenges in Its Sustainability
		19.6 Development of Second-Generation Biodiesel to Address the Sustainability
		19.7 Algae-Based Biodiesel
		19.8 Waste Oils, Grease, and Animal Fats in Biodiesel Production
		19.9 Technical Impact by the Biodiesel Usage
		19.10 Socioeconomic Impacts
		19.11 Toxicological Impact
		19.12 Sustainability Challenges in the Biodiesel Production and Use
		19.13 Concluding Remarks
		References
	Chapter 20 Advanced Practices in Biodiesel Production
		20.1 Introduction
		20.2 Mechanism of Transesterification
		20.3 Advanced Biodiesel Production Technologies
			20.3.1 Production of Biodiesel Using Membrane Reactor
			20.3.2 Microwave-Assisted Transesterification Technology
			20.3.3 Ultrasonic-Assisted Transesterification Techniques
			20.3.4 Production of Biodiesel Using Cosolvent Method
			20.3.5 In Situ Biodiesel Production Technology
			20.3.6 Production of Biodiesel Through Reactive Distillation Process
		20.4 Conclusion
		20.5 Future Perspectives
		References
Index
EULA