Biodegradable Composites for Packaging Applications

Cover
Half Title
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface
Acknowledgements
Aim and Scope
Editors
Contributors
Chapter 1 Introduction to Biodegradable Polymers
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Market of Biodegradable Polymers
	1.3 Non-Degradable and Biodegradable Polymers
	1.4 Need of Biodegradable Plastics
	1.5 Factors Affecting Processing Parameters and Optimization
	1.6 Latest Advancements
	1.7 Applications of Biodegradable Polymers
	1.8 Summary
	References
Chapter 2 Bio-Based Materials for Food Packaging Applications
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Need for Biodegradable Packaging Materials
	2.3 Biopolymers and Their Classifications
		2.3.1 Biomass-Derived Biopolymers
			2.3.1.1 Polysaccharide-Derived Polymers
			2.3.1.2 Proteins
		2.3.2 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
			2.3.2.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA )
			2.3.2.2 Polyglycolic Acid (PGA)
			2.3.2.3 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)
			2.3.2.4 Polycaprolactone (PCL )
		2.3.3 Microbially Derived Polymers
			2.3.3.1 Bacterial Cellulose
			2.3.3.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs )
	2.4 Different Types of Biodegradable Packaging Materials
		2.4.1 Biodegradable Gel
		2.4.2 Biodegradable Bags and Pouches
		2.4.3 Biodegradable Films and Trays
	2.5 Nanotechnology and Packaging Science
	2.6 Conclusions
	Acknowledgement
	References
Chapter 3 Processing of Biodegradable Composites
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Processing Techniques
		3.2.1 Solution Processing
			3.2.1.1 Solution Casting
			3.2.1.2 Electrospinning
			3.2.1.3 Dry Spinning
			3.2.1.4 Wet Spinning
			3.2.1.5 Gel Spinning
			3.2.1.6 Coating
			3.2.1.7 Freeze-Drying
		3.2.2 Melt Processing
			3.2.2.1 Hygroscopic Properties
			3.2.2.2 Granule Characteristics
			3.2.2.3 Melt Mixing and Roll Milling
			3.2.2.4 Extrusion
			3.2.2.5 Moulding
			3.2.2.6 Thermoforming
			3.2.2.7 Hot Isostatic Pressing
			3.2.2.8 Melt Drawing
		3.2.3 Updated Processing Techniques
			3.2.3.1 In Situ Polymerization
			3.2.3.2 Master Batch Dilution Technique
			3.2.3.3 3D Printing
	3.3 Challenges in Biodegradable Composites Processing
	3.4 Future Prospects of Biodegradable Composite Processing
	3.5 Summary
	References
Chapter 4 Challenges and Perspectives of Biodegradable Composites
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Overview of Biodegradable Polymers
	4.3 Prospects of Biocomposites and Their Processing
		4.3.1 Recent Developments in Biocomposites
		4.3.2 Recent Developments in Porous/Cellular Biocomposite Foams/Scaffolds
		4.3.3 Processing Methods of Biocomposites and Biocomposite Foams
			4.3.3.1 Processing of Biocomposites
			4.3.3.2 Processing of Cellular Biocomposite Foams
		4.3.4 Challenges in Biopolymer Processing
	4.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 5 A Comprehensive Study of Biodegradable Composites for Food Packaging Applications
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Biodegradable Composites
	5.3 Production of Biodegradable Composites
	5.4 Biopolymers and Their Potential as Packaging Material
		5.4.1 Starch-Based Biopolymers
		5.4.2 Protein-Based Biopolymers
			5.4.2.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA )
			5.4.2.2 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs )
	5.5 Properties of Biopolymers
	5.6 Biodegradation of Biopolymers
	5.7 Biodegradation Test
	5.8 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 6 Biodegradable Composites for Commodities Packaging Applications and Toxicity
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Composites Materials and Toxicity
		6.2.1 Synthetic Composite Materials and Related Toxicity
		6.2.2 Biocomposite Materials and Related Toxicity
			6.2.2.1 Chitosan Composite Materials
			6.2.2.2 Cellulose Composites
			6.2.2.3 Cellulose-Chitosan Composite Materials
			6.2.2.4 Chitosan-Collagen Composite Materials
		6.2.3 Micro-/Nanocomposites for Commodities Packaging: an Emerging Trend
		6.2.4 Essential Oil-Based Nanocomposites for Food Packaging
	6.3 Regulatory Challenges and Toxicity Assessment of Food Packaging Biocomposites
	6.4 Conclusions
	6.5 Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 7 Biodegradable Composites for Conductive and Sensor Applications
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Biodegradable Polymers as Matrices in a Biodegradable Composite
		7.2.1 Natural Biodegradable Polymers
		7.2.2 Polysaccharides
			7.2.2.1 Starch
			7.2.2.2 Cellulose
			7.2.2.3 Alginate
			7.2.2.4 Proteins
			7.2.2.5 Polyhydroxyalkonates
		7.2.3 Synthetic Biodegradable Polymers
	7.3 Sensors
		7.3.1 Biodegradable Composites as Sensors for Environmental Applications
		7.3.2 Biodegradable Composites as Sensors for Medical Applications
	7.4 Conclusions
	Acknowledgement
	References
Chapter 8 Polymers for Innovative Packaging Applications
	8.1 Introduction to Packaging
		8.1.1 Development of Biopolymers
	8.2 Timeline of Plastics
		8.2.1 Parkesine
		8.2.2 Celluloid
		8.2.3 Bakelite - Formaldehyde Resins
		8.2.4 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
		8.2.5 Cellophane
		8.2.6 Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)
		8.2.7 Polyethylene (PE)
		8.2.8 Polyurethane (PUR)
		8.2.9 Polystyrene (PS)
		8.2.10 Polypropylene (PP)
	8.3 Biopolymers
		8.3.1 Classification of Biopolymers
		8.3.2 Primary Phase
		8.3.3 Secondary Phase
		8.3.4 Third Phase
	8.4 Advantages and Drawbacks of Bioplastics
	8.5 Bioplastic Extracted/Isolated Directly from Biomass
		8.5.1 Cellulose
		8.5.2 Cellulose Derivatives
		8.5.3 Starch
		8.5.4 Soy Proteins
		8.5.5 Chitin and Chitosan
		8.5.6 Lignin
		8.5.7 Collagen
		8.5.8 Gelatin
		8.5.9 Alginate
		8.5.10 Pectin
		8.5.11 Other Plant Proteins
		8.5.12 Poly-Beta-Hydroxyalkanoates (PHB)
		8.5.13 Polylactic Acid (PLA) Plastics
	8.6 Bioplastic from Uneatable Substances
		8.6.1 Pomegranate Peel
		8.6.2 Orange Peel
	8.7 Polymers Produced by Conventional Chemical Synthesis of Bio-Monomers
		8.7.1 Polyglycolide (PGA)
		8.7.2 Polycaprolactone (PCL )
		8.7.3 Polybutylene succinate (PBS)
		8.7.4 Poly(p-dioxanone) (PPDO)
		8.7.5 Polyanhydrides
	8.8 Polymers Obtained Directly from Natural or Genetically Modified Organisms
	8.9 Properties of Biodegradable Materials
		8.9.1 Barrier Properties
		8.9.2 Oxygen Scavengers/Absorbers
		8.9.3 Moisture Scavengers/Absorbers
		8.9.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO[sub(2)] ) Scavengers/Emitters
		8.9.5 Flavour and Odour Absorbers or Releasers
		8.9.6 Ethylene Absorbers and Adsorbers
		8.9.7 Mechanical Properties
	8.10 Current Restrictions
		8.10.1 Bioactive Packaging
		8.10.2 Nano-Packaging
		8.10.3 Responsive Packaging
		8.10.4 Edible Packaging
	8.11 Biodegradation and Composting
		8.11.1 The Biodegradation Polymer Mechanism
	8.12 Biodegradable Plastic
	8.13 Compostable Plastics
	8.14 Applications of Biodegradable Polymers
		8.14.1 Applications in Medicine and Pharmacy
		8.14.2 Applications in Stuffing
		8.14.3 Applications in Agriculture
		8.14.4 Applications in Other Fields
	8.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bio-Packaging
	8.16 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 9 Edible Film and Coating for Food Packaging
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 History and Background
		9.2.1 Characteristics
	9.3 Classification
		9.3.1 Polysaccharide-Based Edible Films and Coatings
		9.3.2 Protein-Based Edible Films and Coatings
		9.3.3 Lipid-Based Edible Films and Coatings
		9.3.4 Composite Edible Films and Coatings
	9.4 Components of Edible Films
		9.4.1 Film-Forming Materials
		9.4.2 Plasticizers
		9.4.3 Additives
	9.5 Film Formation Process and Mechanism
	9.6 Need for Edible Films and Coatings/Functions of Edible Films and Coatings/Advantages
		9.6.1 Environmental Safety and Edibility
		9.6.2 Protection from Physical and Mechanical Damage
		9.6.3 Barrier to Migration of Gases
			9.6.3.1 Carriers of Active Substances
			9.6.3.2 Food Quality
		9.6.4 Microbial Safety and Shelf Life
		9.6.5 Convenience
		9.6.6 Process-Aiding Functions
	9.7 Applications in Various Food Groups
		9.7.1 Meat and Poultry Products
		9.7.2 Fish Products
		9.7.3 Fresh Produce
		9.7.4 Fruits
		9.7.5 Vegetables
		9.7.6 Dairy Products
		9.7.7 Bakery and Confectionary Products
	9.8 Recent Advances/Current Research
		9.8.1 Carriers of Bioactive Compounds
		9.8.2 Flavor Encapsulation
		9.8.3 Carrier of Probiotics
	9.9 Challenges and Opportunities
		9.9.1 Regulations
		9.9.2 Feasibility of Commercialized Systems
		9.9.3 Consumer Acceptance
	9.10 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 10 Smart and Intelligent Packaging Based on Biodegradable Composites
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Biodegradable Polymers/Composites
	10.3 Conductivity of Biodegradable Polymers
	10.4 Biodegradable/Conductive Polymer Blends
	10.5 Colorimetric pH Sensors Using Dyes
	10.6 Sensors in Food Packaging
	10.7 Printed Electronics
		10.7.1 Conductive Packaging Films
		10.7.2 Conductive Inks
		10.7.3 Sensors and Smart Labels
	10.8 Conclusions
	Acknowledgments
	References
Chapter 11 Migration Studies of Biodegradable Composites
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Biodegradable Green Composites
	11.3 Natural Rubber Latex
		11.3.1 Latex Manufacturing Process
		11.3.2 Global Legislation for Rubber Materials in Contact with Food
		11.3.3 Rubber and Chemical Migration into Food
	11.4 Biopolymer Composites
	11.5 Migration Behaviour of Lubricants in Polypropylene Composites
	11.6 Food Simulants
	11.7 No Migration
	11.8 Principal Issues in Global Food Contact: Indian Perspective
		11.8.1 The Indian Subcontinent: A Study in Contrast
		11.8.2 Food Contact Legislation
		11.8.3 Indian Standards for Direct Food Contact
		11.8.4 Methods of Analysis and Determination of Specific and Overall Migration Limits
		11.8.5 Acceptability Criteria
		11.8.6 Future
	11.9 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12 Degradation Studies of Biodegradable Composites
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Biopolymers
		12.1.2 Biopolymers from Petro-Sources
			12.1.2.1 Cellulose Based
			12.1.2.2 Protein Based
			12.1.2.3 Starch Based
			12.1.2.4 CO[sub(2)] Based
		12.1.3 Polymers and Surroundings
		12.1.4 Polymer Impact on Environment
			12.1.4.1 By Ocean
			12.1.4.2 By Land
			12.1.4.3 By Industries
			12.1.4.4 By Landfills
			12.1.4.5 Sewage Debris
		12.1.5 Environmental Circumstances
		12.1.6 Factors Affecting Polymer Degradation Characteristics
	12.2 Degradation of Polymers
		12.2.1 Biological Degradation
			12.2.1.1 Polymer Biodegradation Mechanism
			12.2.1.2 Aerobic Biodegradation
			12.2.1.3 Anaerobic Biodegradation
			12.2.1.4 Principles in Testing Biodegradable Polymers
			12.2.1.5 Soil Burial Degradation Mechanism
			12.2.1.6 Water Degradation
		12.2.2 Chemical Degradation
		12.2.3 Thermal Degradation
			12.2.3.1 Steps of Thermal Degradation
			12.2.3.2 Pyrolysis
		12.2.4 Weather Degradation
			12.2.4.1 Weathering Mechanism
		12.2.5 Mechanical Degradation
			12.2.5.1 Regrinding
			12.2.5.2 Adhesive Pressing
			12.2.5.3 Compression Moulding
			12.2.5.4 Injection Moulding
	12.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 13 Rheological Studies of Biodegradable Composites
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Rheology and Biodegradable Composites
	13.3 Instrumentation of Different Flowability Investigations
		13.3.1 Rheometer
			13.3.1.1 Shearing Geometries
		13.3.2 Viscometer
	13.4 Rheology Studies of Biodegradable Composites
		13.4.1 Solution Viscosity
		13.4.2 Melt Rheology
			13.4.2.1 Melt Flow Properties of Composites
			13.4.2.2 Dispersion of Reinforcement
			13.4.2.3 Cross-linking, Plasticizing Effect and Compatibility Investigation
		13.4.3 Magnetorheological Fluids (MRF)
		13.4.4 Rheological Model
			13.4.4.1 Power-Law Model
			13.4.4.2 Herschel-Bulkley (HB) Model
			13.4.4.3 Casson Model
	13.5 Summary and Outlook
	References
Chapter 14 Active Biodegradable Composites for Packaging Applications
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Natural Pigments
	14.3 Plant Extracts
	14.4 Essential Oils and Enzymes
	14.5 Nanoparticles
	14.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 15 Microplastic and Nanoplastic Pollution in Water Bodies from Conventional Packaging Materials: Need to Search for Biodegradable Polymers
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Occurrence of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in the Environment
	15.3 Sources, Pathways and Sink of Microplastics and Nanoplastics in Water Bodies
		15.3.1 Microplastics
		15.3.2 Nanoplastics
	15.4 Effects of MP and NP on Aquatic Ecosystem and Human Life
	15.5 Development of Various Technologies for the Removal of MP and NP from Water
	15.6 Worldwide Regulations as a Sustainable Development Goal
	15.7 Solution to Plastic Packaging Materials
		15.7.1 Starch
		15.7.2 Polylactic Acid (PLA)
		15.7.3 Polycaprolactone (PCL )
		15.7.4 Polyhydroxybutyrate/Polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHB/PHA)
		15.7.5 Additives Used to Improve Overall Properties of Biodegradable Materials
			15.7.5.1 Glycerol
			15.7.5.2 Cellulose
			15.7.5.3 Gelatin
			15.7.5.4 Chitosan
			15.7.5.5 Citric Acid
		15.7.6 Techniques Used to Manufacture Biodegradable Composite
			15.7.6.1 Casting Evaporation Approach
			15.7.6.2 Foaming Processing
			15.7.6.3 Extrusion Processing
			15.7.6.4 Electrospinning
			15.7.6.5 3D Printing
			15.7.6.6 Reactive Extrusion
			15.7.6.7 Nanotechnology
	15.8 Challenges Faced in Biodegradable Packaging
		15.8.1 Mechanical Properties
		15.8.2 Thermal Properties
		15.8.3 Barrier Properties
		15.8.4 Biodegradability
	15.9 Conclusions and Perspectives
	References
Chapter 16 Developments in Food Packaging for Enhancing Food Quality and Safety
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Novel Packaging Technologies
		16.2.1 Active Packaging
		16.2.2 Mechanism of Active Packaging
		16.2.3 Types of Active Substances
	16.3 Intelligent Packaging
		16.3.1 Smart Package Devices
			16.3.1.1 Barcodes
			16.3.1.2 Radio Frequency Identification Tags
			16.3.1.3 Time-Temperature Indicators
			16.3.1.4 Gas Indicators
			16.3.1.5 Freshness Indicators
		16.3.2 Bioactive Packaging
	16.4 Effect of Novel Technologies on Packaging of Food
	16.5 Conclusions
	16.6 Future Trends
	References
Index