Bio-materials and prototyping applications in medicine

Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Emerging Trends in the Applications of Metallic and Ceramic Biomaterials
	1.1 Preface
	1.2 Metals
		1.2.1 Titanium
			1.2.1.1 Description
			1.2.1.2 Applications
		1.2.2 Stainless Steel
			1.2.2.1 Description
			1.2.2.2 Applications
		1.2.3 Shape Memory Alloys
			1.2.3.1 Description
			1.2.3.2 Applications
		1.2.4 Noble Metals
			1.2.4.1 Gold
			1.2.4.2 Platinum
			1.2.4.3 Silver
		1.2.5 Biodegradable Metals
	1.3 Ceramics
		1.3.1 Hydroxyapatite (HA)
			1.3.1.1 Description
			1.3.1.2 Applications
		1.3.2 Zirconia
			1.3.2.1 Description
			1.3.2.2 Applications
	References
Chapter 2: Emerging Trends in Polymers, Composites, and Nano Biomaterial Applications
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Synthetic Polymers
		2.2.1 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
		2.2.2 Polymers for Dental Restorative Applications
			2.2.2.1 Reinforced Polymers for Improved Strength
			2.2.2.2 Low-Shrinkage Polymer Systems for Reduced Microleakage
		2.2.3 Polymeric Biomaterials for Structural Applications
		2.2.4 Bio-functional Ffunctional Polymers for Cardiovascular Applications
	2.3 Nanomaterials
		2.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
			2.3.1.1 Description
			2.3.1.2 Applications
	References
Chapter 3: Silk-Based Materials and Composites: Fabrication and Biomedical Applications
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Bombyx mori Silkworm Silk: Structure, Properties, and Processing
		3.2.1 Structure and Properties
		3.2.2 Processing of SF
		3.2.3 Biomedical Applications of SF in Various Material Formats
	3.3 Silk-Derived Materials and Composites
		3.3.1 Composite Hydrogels
		3.3.2 Composite Fibers
		3.3.3 Composite Films
		3.3.4 Silk-Fiber-Reinforced Composites
		3.3.5 Hybrid Nanocomposites
		3.3.6 Carbonized Silk
	3.4 Summary and Outlook
	References
Chapter 4: Materials Properties and Manufacturing Processes of Nitinol Endovascular Devices
	4.1 Background on Nitinol
		4.1.1 History of Nitinol
		4.1.2 Macroscopic Behavior of Nitinol
			4.1.2.1 Shape Memory Effect
			4.1.2.2 Superelasticity
		4.1.3 Microscopic View of Nitinol
			4.1.3.1 Crystallography
			4.1.3.2 Martensitic Phase Transformation
			4.1.3.3 Twin Boundary Motion
		4.1.4 Other Properties of Nitinol for Endovascular Devices
			4.1.4.1 Surface Properties
			4.1.4.2 Hemocompatibility
	4.2 Manufacturing Processes of Nitinol Used for Endovascular Devices
		4.2.1 Drawing Process for Nitinol Wires and Tubes
		4.2.2 Laser-Cutting Process for Stent Fabrication
		4.2.3 Joining and Welding Processes for Stents, Filters, Guidewires, and Occluders
		4.2.4 Subsequent Post-Processes
			4.2.4.1 Thermal Annealing
			4.2.4.2 Electropolishing
	4.3 Nitinol Endovascular Devices
		4.3.1 Guidewires
		4.3.2 Self-Expanding Stents
		4.3.3 Percutaneous Heart Valve Frame
		4.3.4 Atrial Septal Defect (ASD) Occluder
		4.3.5 Vena Cava Filter
	4.4 Summary
	References
Chapter 5: 3D Topological Scanning and Multi-material Additive Manufacturing for Facial Prosthesis Development
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Experimental
		5.2.1 Topology Mapping and Model Construction
		5.2.2 Model Construction and Post-processing
		5.2.3 Additive Manufacturing
	5.3 Results
		5.3.1 Scanning and Model Creation
		5.3.2 Model Post-processing
			5.3.2.1 Single Model
			5.3.2.2 Multicomponent Ear Modelling
		5.3.3 Prosthesis Fabrication Using Additive Manufacturing
			5.3.3.1 Single Model Printing
			5.3.3.2 Multi-model Printing
	5.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 6: Medical Applications of Additive Manufacturing
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 AM Process in Medicine
		6.2.1 Pre-Printing
		6.2.2 Printing
			6.2.2.1 Stereolithography (SLA)
			6.2.2.2 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
			6.2.2.3 Inkjet Printing
			6.2.2.4 Extrusion-Based System
		6.2.3 Post-Printing
		6.2.4 Clinical Applications
	6.3 Medical Applications of AM
		6.3.1 Medical Models for Pre- and Post-Operative Planning, Education, and Training
		6.3.2 Medical Aids, Orthoses, Splints, and Prostheses
		6.3.3 Tools, Instruments, and Parts for Medical Devices
		6.3.4 Inert Implants
		6.3.5 Bioprinting
			6.3.5.1 Pharmaceutics
			6.3.5.2 Cardiovascular Applications
			6.3.5.3 Cancer Studies
	6.4 Limitations and Considerations
		6.4.1 Insufficient Accuracy
		6.4.2 Increase in Cost Effectiveness
		6.4.3 Regulations and Safety Issues
	6.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 7: Engineering Natural-Based Photocrosslinkable Hydrogels for Cartilage Applications
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Articular Cartilage
		7.2.1 Composition and Zonal Organisation
		7.2.2 Clinical Treatments and Challenges
	7.3 Engineering Hydrogels for Cartilage Tissue Engineering
		7.3.1 Crosslinking Mechanisms of Hydrogels
		7.3.2 Biofunctionalisation of Hydrogels
			7.3.2.1 Hydrogel Composition and Structure
			7.3.2.2 Hydrogel Viscoelasticity
			7.3.2.3 Bioconjugation of Bioactive Peptides
			7.3.2.4 Tethering and Controlled Delivery of Biochemical Factors
	7.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 8: Exoskeletons for Lower Limb Applications: A Review
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Lower Limb Biomechanics and Locomotion
	8.3 Classes of Lower Limb Exoskeleton
		8.3.1 Gait Rehabilitation, Human Locomotion Assistance and Human Strength Augmentation
			8.3.1.1 Gait Rehabilitation
			8.3.1.2 Human Locomotion Assistance
			8.3.1.3 Human Strength Augmentation
	8.4 Active Versus Passive
	8.5 Actuation Systems
		8.5.1 Electric Actuators
		8.5.2 Pneumatic Actuators
		8.5.3 Hydraulic Actuators
	8.6 Challenges and Opportunities
		8.6.1 Low Weight
		8.6.2 Actuators
		8.6.3 Cost
		8.6.4 Mechanical Design
		8.6.5 Safety
		8.6.6 Human–Exoskeleton Interface
		8.6.7 Customisation and Personalisation
	8.7 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9: Bioglasses for Bone Tissue Engineering
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Βioactive Glasses
	9.3 Scaffold Design and Fabrication
		9.3.1 Design Requirements
		9.3.2 Structural Properties
		9.3.3 Porosity
	9.4 Surface Topography
	9.5 Wettability
	9.6 Manufacturing Processes for Scaffolds Fabrication
		9.6.1 Foam Replication
		9.6.2 Sol–Gel Processing
	9.7 Additive Manufacturing
	9.8 Ink-Jet Printing Process
		9.8.1 Extrusion-Based Process
		9.8.2 Powder Bed Fusion Process
		9.8.3 Vat Photopolymerization Process
	9.9 Research Challenges
	References
Index