Bilingualism and the Latin Language

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
Preface......Page 21
Acknowledgments......Page 26
Abbreviations......Page 28
I INTRODUCTORY REMARKS; SOME ISSUES IN THE STUDY OF BILINGUALISM......Page 31
II BILINGUALISM......Page 33
III ÉLITE AND SUB-ÉLITE BILINGUALISM: ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE AND ITS SHORTCOMINGS......Page 39
III.I Non-élite bilingualism......Page 44
IV ROMANS, GREEKS AND OTHERS AS LANGUAGE LEARNERS......Page 45
V CODE-SWITCHING, INTERFERENCE AND BORROWING......Page 48
VII SOURCES OF INFORMATION......Page 59
VII.1 Bilingual texts......Page 60
VII.2 Transliterated texts......Page 70
VII.2.1 Latin in Greek script: introduction......Page 71
VII.2.2 The use of Greek script for Latin as a matter of choice......Page 73
VII.2.3 Latin written in Greek script by possible illiterates in Latin script......Page 83
VII.2.4 Some other scripts......Page 93
VII.3 Mixed-language texts......Page 97
VII.4 Texts which implicitly reflect a bilingual situation......Page 100
VII.4.1 Orthographic interference and alphabet-switching......Page 101
VII.4.2 Translations of clichés, formulae, etc.......Page 106
VIII THE AUTHORSHIP OF INSCRIPTIONS......Page 114
IX PIDGINS AND ‘REDUCED’ LANGUAGES......Page 123
X SOME CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 136
APPENDIX: ATTITUDES TO THE GREEK ACCENT IN LATIN......Page 138
I INTRODUCTION......Page 141
II OSCAN, UMBRIAN, VENETIC, MESSAPIC......Page 142
II.1 Testimonia and literary evidence......Page 143
II.2 Bilingual texts......Page 153
II.3 ‘Mixed language’ texts, ‘Latinised’ Oscan and ‘Oscanised’ Latin (?)......Page 157
II.3.1 Conclusions......Page 174
II.4 Bilingual areas: some remarks about Pompeii......Page 175
II.5 Greek and Italic......Page 178
II.6 Conclusions......Page 180
II.6.1 Latin ‘influences’ Italic......Page 185
II.6.2 Italic ‘influences’ Latin......Page 187
III ETRUSCAN......Page 189
III.1 ‘Roman’ Etruscan......Page 190
III.2 Loan-words and calques......Page 193
III.3 Greeks and Etruscans......Page 195
III.5 Etruscan and Latin: anecdotal evidence......Page 196
III.6 Inscriptions......Page 199
III.7 The prophecy of Vegoia......Page 209
III.8 Conclusions......Page 212
IV.1 Introduction: loan-words and interpreters......Page 214
IV.2 Gaulish and bilingual texts......Page 215
IV.3 Interference from Gaulish......Page 220
IV.4 Marcellus of Bordeaux......Page 221
IV.5 The spindle whorls from eastern France......Page 226
IV.6 Conclusions......Page 229
V.1 Introduction......Page 230
V.2 The early period......Page 231
V.3 Coins......Page 237
V.4 Sardinia......Page 239
V.5.1 Bilingual texts and names......Page 243
V.5.2 Punic borrowing from and imitation of Latin......Page 251
V.5.3 Miscellaneous......Page 254
V.5.4 Conclusions......Page 259
V.6 The ‘Latino-Punic’ inscriptions......Page 260
V.6.1 Conclusions......Page 265
V.7 Bu Njem......Page 266
V.8 Later literary evidence......Page 267
V.9 Punic (Phoenician)–Greek code-switching or language mixing......Page 270
V.10 Conclusions......Page 272
VI LIBYAN, BERBER......Page 275
VII.1 Introduction......Page 277
VII.2 Palmyrenes abroad......Page 278
VII.3 Palmyra......Page 290
VII.5 Native speakers of Latin and contact with Aramaic......Page 294
VII.6 Conclusions......Page 299
VIII HEBREW......Page 301
IX GERMANIC......Page 304
X HISPANIC LANGUAGES......Page 309
XIII THRACIAN......Page 313
XIV.1 Regional Latin and language change......Page 314
XIV.2 Code-switching......Page 317
XIV.3 Language death and Romanisation......Page 319
XIV.4 Bilingual inscriptions......Page 321
XIV.5 Language learning......Page 323
XIV.6 Accommodation......Page 325
I INTRODUCTION......Page 327
II CODE-SWITCHING AND IMPERFECT COMPETENCE......Page 335
III.1 Introduction......Page 338
Characterisations of Cicero’s words in the letters......Page 353
Characterisations of the words of Atticus or other correspondents......Page 354
Characterisations of speech......Page 355
III.3 Code-switching as a form of coding or exclusion......Page 359
III.4 Code-switching as distancing or euphemism......Page 360
III.5 Code-switching and proverbial or fixed expressions......Page 365
III.6 Code-switching and the mot juste......Page 367
III.7 Code-switching and medical terminology......Page 370
III.8 Special cases: the evocativeness of code-switching......Page 371
III.9 The chronology of code-switching in Cicero......Page 372
III.10 Some concluding remarks......Page 374
IV SOLIDARITY: SOME INSCRIPTIONAL AND OTHER EVIDENCE......Page 377
IV.1 Accommodation as an act of solidarity and as a form of disparagement......Page 380
V IDENTITY......Page 386
V.1 Identity: language shift across several generations......Page 397
V.2 Identity: code-switching and names......Page 399
V.3 Identity: code-switching in names in some other languages......Page 405
V.4 Identity: filiations......Page 406
V.5 Identity: official titles......Page 410
VI.1 Bilingual transcripts of hearings......Page 413
VI.2 Code-switching and dates......Page 420
VI.3 Power: code-switching and passwords and the like......Page 423
VII A SPECIAL CASE: CODE-SWITCHING IN THE SUBSCRIPTIO OF LETTERS......Page 426
VIII CODE-SWITCHING AND THE EXPRESSION OF BUREAUCRATIC INFORMATION: SOME REMARKS ON ‘DIGLOSSIA’ AND THE LANGUAGE OF AUTHORITY......Page 429
IX CODE-SWITCHING AND THE EVOCATION OF THE EXOTIC......Page 433
X UNMOTIVATED CODE-SWITCHING?......Page 435
XI FURTHER INSTITUTIONALISED CODE-SWITCHING......Page 436
XII.1 Code-switching and the notion of the ‘mixed language’......Page 437
XII.2 The significance of funerary inscriptions......Page 439
XII.3 Code-switching and markedness......Page 440
XII.4 Code-switching and social intention: power and solidarity/accommodation......Page 443
XII.5 ‘Retention’: some further observations about the code-switching of Roman Greeks......Page 445
XII.6 Code-switching and gender......Page 446
I INTRODUCTION......Page 447
II BORROWING AND ITS DIVERSITY......Page 448
III INTERFERENCE AGAIN: A PROBLEM OF INTERPRETATION......Page 454
IV SECOND-LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND REGIONAL VARIATION IN LANGUAGE: SOME INTRODUCTORY REMARKS......Page 455
V BORROWING AND INTERFERENCE: TYPES AND CASE STUDIES......Page 461
V.1.1 Greeks’ Latin: some evidence concerning phonetic interference and accent......Page 462
V.1.2 Some other accents......Page 467
V.1.3 Phonetic interference: Celtic interference in Gallic Latin......Page 468
V.2 Vocabulary......Page 471
V.2.2 Greek......Page 473
V.2.3 Germanic......Page 477
V.2.4 Hispanic languages......Page 480
V.2.5 Punic and Libyan......Page 484
V.2.6 Celtic......Page 485
V.2.7 Miscellaneous......Page 487
V.2.10 Conclusions......Page 488
V.2.11 Calques and loan-shifts......Page 489
V.2.12 Translations of idioms......Page 498
V.3.1 Greeks’ Latin: dative and genitive singular of female first-declension names in Latin......Page 503
V.3.1.1 The genitive in -aes......Page 509
V.3.1.2 Venusia and convergence......Page 513
V.3.1.3 A new Latin suffix determined partly by contact with Greek......Page 516
V.3.1.4 The type Marciane......Page 520
V.3.1.5 Some concluding remarks......Page 521
V.3.2 Genitive plural......Page 522
V.3.3 Nominative singular......Page 523
V.3.4 Accusative plural......Page 524
V.3.5 Suffixation: some Latinate suffixes in the Greek of Egypt......Page 525
V.4 Syntax......Page 526
V.4.1 Roman Greek again: the Greek dative......Page 527
V.4.1.1 A use of the dative in the Greek translations of senatus consulta......Page 533
V.4.1.3 The dative of duration of time......Page 534
V.4.1.5 Conclusions......Page 538
V.4.2 Greeks’ Latin: the genitive (of time) in Latin......Page 539
V.4.3 The genitive of filiation in Latin......Page 541
V.4.4 African Latin: the use of the vocative for nominative......Page 542
V.4.5 The definite article: Romans’ Greek and Roman Latin......Page 545
V.4.6 Bilingualism and the system of gender......Page 549
VI CONCLUSIONS......Page 550
VI.1 Contact-induced linguistic change of the creative type......Page 551
VI.2 Factors facilitating linguistic change in situations of language contact......Page 552
VI.3 Bilingualism and the diversity of Latin......Page 554
VI.4 The limitations of language contact as a determinant of language change......Page 556
I INTRODUCTION......Page 557
I.1 Latin, Greek and Egyptian......Page 559
I.2 Some questions......Page 566
I.3 Diglossia......Page 567
I.4 The availability of scribes as a determinant of language choice......Page 571
II THE EVIDENCE FROM EGYPT......Page 573
IV LATIN AS A LANGUAGE OF POWER......Page 575
IV.1 Greek and Latin inscriptions at the Colossus of Memnon......Page 576
IV.2 The Abinnaeus archive......Page 585
IV.2.1 P. Oxy. LXIII.4381......Page 587
IV.3 The past and some miscellaneous texts......Page 588
IV.4 Bilingual transcripts of hearings......Page 591
IV.5 Latin as a language of power: the citizenship......Page 592
IV.6 The citizenship: some mixed-language official documents from Egypt......Page 594
IV.7 Some bilingual inscriptions: building inscriptions......Page 601
V ACCOMMODATION: INTRODUCTION......Page 606
V.1 Accommodation in the religious sphere......Page 607
V.2 Pilgrimage and tourist sites......Page 609
V.3 Kalabcha (Talmis, the temple of Mandulis)......Page 610
V.4 The Syringes of Thebes......Page 613
V.5 Dakka (Pselchis)......Page 616
V.6 Inscriptions on the route from Coptos to Quseir......Page 617
V.8 Conclusions......Page 618
VI.1 Mundane practical bilingualism: linguistic competence as a determinant of language choice......Page 619
VI.2 The archive of Tiberianus and the roles of Greek and Latin......Page 623
VI.3 Conclusion: diglossia in Egypt......Page 627
VII.1 Latin as the ‘official’ language of the army?......Page 629
VII.2.1 Latin and the transmission of orders......Page 638
VII.2.2 Receipts......Page 639
VII.2.4 Dedications to emperors......Page 644
VII.2.5 Some epitaphs......Page 646
VII.3 Evidence for the learning of Latin in the army......Page 647
VIII THE LEARNING OF LATIN IN EGYPT......Page 653
IX CONCLUSIONS......Page 660
APPENDIX: THE TRILINGUAL INSCRIPTION OF GALLUS......Page 667
I THE COMMUNITY OF NEGOTIATORES AT DELOS......Page 672
II LINGUISTIC INTEGRATION OF ROMANS/ITALIANS ON DELOS......Page 675
III ITALICI…AND IDENTITY: A TYPE OF INSCRIPTION......Page 679
III.1 Formulaic structure......Page 680
III.2…......Page 681
III.3 Accusative of the honorand......Page 688
III.4 Gemination of vowels......Page 691
IV.1 Dedications to Roman dignitaries......Page 693
IV.2 A social dimension to language choice: the collegia......Page 696
V.1 Uses of…aspects of imitation, accommodation and code-switching
......Page 700
V.2 Regionalisms (?)......Page 707
VI THE MYCONOS CURSE TABLET......Page 710
VII CONCLUSIONS......Page 712
I INTRODUCTION......Page 717
II LA GRAUFESENQUE......Page 718
III LANGUAGE DIFFERENTIATION......Page 723
IV.1 Intra-phrasal switching......Page 732
IV.2 Code-switching in names......Page 733
IV.3 Names, continued: the possible influence of the etymology of a name on the selection of its ending......Page 737
IV.4 Inter-sentential switching......Page 741
IV.5 Morphological code-switching......Page 742
IV.6 Some formulae......Page 746
IV.7 Conclusions......Page 747
V LATIN AT LA GRAUFESENQUE......Page 750
I A TRANSLATION OF BABRIUS......Page 755
II.1 Commentary......Page 763
II VERB-MORPHOLOGY IN CLAUDIUS TERENTIANUS AND SOME VINDOLANDA TEXTS......Page 771
Finite verbs, active and passive......Page 772
III CONCLUSIONS......Page 779
II IDENTITY......Page 781
III DIGLOSSIA......Page 784
IV LANGUAGE ATTITUDES......Page 785
V LANGUAGE POLICIES......Page 787
VI LANGUAGE DEATH......Page 789
VII THE ARMY......Page 790
VIII SLAVERY......Page 791
IX ‘HELLENISATION’ OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE (?)......Page 792
XI LITERACY......Page 795
Bibliography......Page 797
Subject index......Page 835