Benchmarking higher education system performance

Foreword
Acknowledgements
Reader’s Guide
Executive summary
Chapter 1.  Higher education and the wider social and economic context
	1.1. Higher education today
	1.2. Economic and social background of OECD higher education systems
		1.2.1. Higher education and the economic context
			OECD economies have largely recovered from the crisis…
			….but the majority of countries have increased their debt levels.
			Growth in labour productivity has not recovered to levels seen before the crisis…..
			…though employment rates have surpassed pre-crisis levels
		1.2.2. Higher education and social conditions
			Demographic changes have implications for higher education systems
			Migration is increasing across the world
			Higher education is associated with more favourable social outcomes across the OECD
	1.3. Performance challenges in higher education
		1.3.1. Challenges with financing higher education
		1.3.2. Challenges of connecting higher education to human capital development
			Graduate skills
			Access for disadvantaged and non-traditional students
			Internationalisation
		1.3.3. Challenges of contributing to knowledge, innovation, social and cultural development
	1.4. The OECD benchmarking higher education system performance project
	References
Chapter 2.  The structure and governance of higher education of higher education systems
	2.1. Introduction
	2.2.  Structure of higher education systems
		2.2.1. Classifications of higher education programmes
			Qualifications frameworks
			Distribution of students across programme levels
		2.2.2. Classifications of higher education institutions
			Horizontal differentiation
				Binary higher education systems
				Public and private institutions
				Recognition of institutions
			Vertical differentiation
		2.2.3. Access to and pathways within higher education
			Admission to higher education
			Selectivity in admission systems
			Management of applications
			Pathways within higher education
	2.3. Governance of higher education systems
		2.3.1. State governance
			Quality assurance of higher education
				Quality assurance of institutions
				Quality assurance of programmes
			Supranational governance
		2.3.2. Institutional governance
			Accountability
		2.3.3. Market governance
	2.4. Higher education policy directions
		2.4.1. Policy directions in the participating jurisdictions
	2.5. Concluding remarks
		Annex 2.A. Number of higher education institutions and student enrolments
		Annex 2.B. Diagrams of the education systems
	Notes
	References
Chapter 3.  Financial resources
	3.1. Introduction
	3.2. Measuring expenditure on higher education
		3.2.1. Higher education compared to education at other levels
			Factor 1: Higher education spending includes research and development
			Factor 2: On average, academic staff salaries are higher than the salaries of teachers in education levels below higher education
		3.2.2. Sectoral differences in higher education expenditure
	3.3. Expenditure by resource category
		3.3.1. Current expenditure
		3.3.2. Capital expenditure
	3.4. Sources of funding for higher education
		3.4.1. Categories of expenditure sources
		3.4.2. Distribution of funding by source across OECD higher education systems
	3.5. Household spending on higher education
		3.5.1. Tuition fees
		3.5.2. Reducing household burden through student financial support
		3.5.3. Student Loans
		3.5.4. Other types of student support
	3.6. Higher education funding from other private sources
	3.7. The allocation of public funding to higher education institutions
		3.7.1. Dimensions of higher education funding allocation
		3.7.2. Basis for allocating block grants
			Block grant funding based on historical trends
			Block grant funding based on a formula
			Block grant component based on negotiation or performance agreement between government and institutions
		3.7.3. Targeted funding
			Competitive funding
		3.7.4. Changes in the higher education funding systems of the participating jurisdictions from 2000 to 2018
	3.8. Concluding remarks
	Notes
	References
Chapter 4.  Human resources
	4.1. Introduction
	4.2. Profile of staff in higher education institutions
		4.2.1. Academic staff
		4.2.2. Staff qualifications
			Qualifications required for teaching
		4.2.3. Age structure of academic staff
		4.2.4. Gender balance among academic staff
		4.2.5. Non-academic staff categories
		4.2.6. Senior management in higher education institutions
	4.3. Working in higher education
		4.3.1. Career paths in academia
		4.3.2. Permanent and non-permanent staff
		4.3.3. Part-time academic staff
		4.3.4. Salaries of academic staff
		4.3.5. Ratio of students to academic staff
		4.3.6. Academic staff mobility
			Inter-sectoral mobility
			International mobility
			Institutional mobility
		4.3.7. Staff professional development
	4.4. Concluding remarks
	Notes
	References
Chapter 5.  Education
	5.1. Introduction
	5.2. Access to higher education
		5.2.1. Entry rates to higher education
			New entrants by higher education level and subsector
			New entrants by field of study
		5.2.2. New entrant profile
			Skills on entry
			New entrants by age
			New entrants by gender
			New entrants from under-represented groups
	5.3. Lifelong learning
		5.3.1. Part-time studying across OECD countries
	5.4. Digitalisation and online learning
		5.4.1. Distance and online education in the participating jurisdictions
	5.5. Internationalisation
		5.5.1. Student mobility
		5.5.2. Brain drain, brain gain and brain circulation
	5.6. Student experience in higher education
		5.6.1. Student satisfaction as a measure of quality
		5.6.2. Student support and talent development
	5.7. Completion and non-completion
		5.7.1. Completion of higher education
		5.7.2. Factors related to completion
			Completion by full-time or part-time status
			Completion by subsector
			Graduates-to-entrants ratios by field of study and socio-economic background
	5.8. Skills outcomes
		5.8.1. The literacy and numeracy proficiency of young graduates
		5.8.2. Assessment of learning outcomes
	5.9. Labour market outcomes
		5.9.1. Employment, unemployment and inactivity
			Alternative sources of labour market information
		5.9.2. Earnings
		5.9.3. Labour market data sources
			Graduate surveys
			Other sources
			Policies to improve labour market relevance
			Including labour market relevance in accreditation and programme design
			Work-based learning in higher education
	5.10. Concluding remarks
	Notes
	References
Chapter 6.  Research
	6.1. Introduction
		6.1.1. Research systems and strategies
	6.2. Investment in research and development
		6.2.1. Higher education investment within the broader R&D sector
		6.2.2. Sources of funding for higher education research and development
			Funding from international sources
		6.2.3. How research and development funding is spent
			Current and capital costs
			Expenditure by type of R&D
	6.3. Profile of research and development personnel
		6.3.1. Researcher numbers relative to the labour force
		6.3.2. Researchers by sector of employment
		6.3.3. Gender equality in the research and development workforce
		6.3.4. Researchers in higher education by field of science
		6.3.5. Technicians and support staff
	6.4. Accessing a career in research
		6.4.1. Entering doctoral studies
			Accessing and funding doctoral education in the participating jurisdictions
			Entering doctoral studies
			The profile of doctoral candidates
		6.4.2. Completion of doctoral programmes
	6.5. Profile of doctorate holders in the population
		6.5.1. Careers of doctorate holders
	6.6. Internationalisation of research
		6.6.1. International mobility
		6.6.2. International collaboration
	6.7. Measuring and improving research performance
		6.7.1. Monitoring research productivity and quality
		6.7.2. Volume and impact of research output
		6.7.3. Turning research into innovation
		6.7.4. Fostering research excellence in higher education
	6.8. Concluding remarks
	Notes
	References
Chapter 7.  Engagement with the wider world
	7.1. Introduction
	7.2. Engagement to build human capital
		7.2.1. Building capacity for entrepreneurship
			Embedding education for entrepreneurship across higher education
			Institutional entrepreneurship and the HEInnovate framework
		7.2.2. Supporting continuing education
			Centres for continuing education
	7.3. Engagement to support innovation
		7.3.1. Collaboration across sectors to drive innovation
			University-private co-publication
		7.3.2. Higher education as a driver for local and regional innovation
			The role of higher education in place-based innovation systems
	7.4. Engagement for wider development
		7.4.1.  Increasing the social relevance and impact of research
			Engaging citizens in the research process
		7.4.2. Expanding open access and open science movements
		7.4.3. Creating a greater role for higher education in civic and cultural engagement
			Higher education and cultural engagement
		7.4.4.  Using engagement activities to promote sustainability
	7.5. Concluding remarks
	Notes
	References
Chapter 8. Assessing performance in higher education
	8.1. Introduction
	8.2. Benchmarking process and results
		8.2.1. Evidence gathered and used for the OECD system benchmarking project
			Review and selection of benchmarking indicators from existing sources
			Development of new indicators
			Policy and practice information for the participating jurisdictions
		8.2.2. Strengths, challenges and performance in the participating jurisdictions
		8.2.3. Combining indicator values to measure performance
			Expenditure on completing and non-completing students
			Expenditure to produce a skilled graduate
			Measuring efficiency in research
				Publications per researcher
				Expenditure per scientific publication
				Discussion
	8.3. Lessons learned from the benchmarking exercise
		8.3.1. A number of benefits of the benchmarking exercise can be identified
		8.3.2. Evidence gaps and difficulties in linking qualitative data to performance created limitations
			Data gaps and poor data coverage
			Qualitative information on policies and practices could not be easily linked to available indicators
		8.3.3. Global systems judgements are unlikely to be the most policy relevant performance measures
	8.4. Future directions
		8.4.1. Key comparative data gaps need to be filled
			More and better data is needed on how much students are learning in higher education
			New ways of measuring engagement activities are needed
			More work is needed to expand common international definitions for higher education activities
			There is a serious information gap on teaching staff in higher education.
		8.4.2. Policy benchmarking could help to fill core gaps in knowledge
		8.4.3. Concluding remarks
	Notes
	References
Chapter 9.  Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance: Estonia
	9.1. Higher education performance in Estonia
		9.1.1. Introduction
		9.1.2. Context and structure of higher education in Estonia
		9.1.3. Estonia’s higher education scorecard
	9.2. Financial and human resources
		9.2.1. Financial resources
			Estonia prioritises investment in higher education, and public expenditure on higher education has increased rapidly
			Educational spending per student is lower in professional higher education institutions (HEIs) than in universities
			Higher education funding sources are moderately diversified in Estonia
			Estonia provides support to students through loans, grants and scholarships, though relatively few students take up the loan offer
			The availability of international financial resources is declining
		9.2.2. Human resources
			Estonia has a relatively large proportion of older staff, and working conditions could be more attractive for young staff
			Women represent around 50% of academic staff in Estonia
			Estonia spends a large proportion of higher education current expenditure on teaching staff relative to the OECD median, but very little on non-teaching staff
			There are fewer academic staff per student than in most other OECD countries
	9.3. Education
		9.3.1. Access, student profile, completion
			Over 40% of Estonian 25-34 year-olds have a higher education degree
			Access to higher education varies by social background, though less than in other OECD countries
			Fewer higher education students complete their study programmes than in many other OECD countries
			Few students study part-time, even though many start their studies when they are 25 or older
			The proportion of international students in Estonia is close to the OECD median
		9.3.2. Graduate outcomes
			Higher education graduates in Estonia have high levels of literacy and numeracy proficiency
			Higher education also yields social and personal benefits
			The economic benefits of higher education for graduates are mixed when compared to other countries
			The Estonian government is seeking to improve the labour market outcomes of graduates
	9.4. Research and engagement
		9.4.1. Inputs and activities
			Estonia has strengthened R&D capacity in recent years
			Gender balance in academia has largely been achieved
			There is a relatively low supply of doctorate holders and researchers in the population
			Estonia appears to have built solid links between higher education R&D and the business sector
		9.4.2. Internationalisation and knowledge production
			International collaboration could be further improved
			Volume of outputs are lower, but the impact of research appears higher according to bibliometric indicators
			Access to knowledge in Estonia is less open than in many other OECD countries
	9.5. Scenarios for policy
		9.5.1. Continued demographic changes may pose difficult challenges for Estonia’s higher education system
		9.5.2. Key related evidence
		9.5.3. Scenarios for Estonia up to 2030
		9.5.4. Implications for policy
			Demand-side options to achieve more positive scenarios
				Achieving the “younger cohort growth” scenario
				Achieving the “older cohort growth” scenario
				Achieving the “international growth” scenario
			Supply-side options to manage more negative scenarios
				Estonia can improve efficiency and prepare for the future
				Tackling non-completion could help mitigate adverse effects of the more negative scenarios
	Notes
	References
Chapter 10.  Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance: The Flemish Community of Belgium
	10.1. Higher education system performance: the Flemish Community of Belgium
		10.1.1. Introduction
		10.1.2. Context and structure of higher education in the Flemish Community
		10.1.3. The Flemish Community’s higher education scorecard
	10.2. Financial and human resources
		10.2.1. Financial resources
			Higher education expenditure is relatively high on a per student basis compared to other OECD countries, but it is decreasing
			Higher education expenditure as a percentage of GDP is not precisely measured
			When excluding research and development, spending per student is distributed evenly between subsectors
			Public expenditure on grants and scholarships is one of the highest among OECD countries
			A relatively high degree of cost sharing compared to the Nordic countries, but not as high as the Netherlands
			High emphasis on R&D activities in higher education institutions
		10.2.2. Human resources
			The Flemish Community has a young age profile of academic staff, relative to other OECD countries
			The share of women among academic staff increased by 10% over the past decade – one of the highest increases among OECD countries
			The share of young teaching staff with a permanent contract is relatively low when compared to Estonia, the Netherlands and Norway
			A high share of current expenditure is spent on staff, particularly on teaching staff
			The academic staff-to-student ratio is higher than in the Netherlands and Estonia
	10.3. Education
		10.3.1. Access, student profile, completion
			Around 45% of 25-34 year-olds have a higher education qualification, and over two-thirds of young adults are projected to enter higher education in the course of their life
			Access to higher education varies by social background, but the access gap appears lower than in many other OECD countries
			The share of part-time students across all age groups is relatively large but the share of mature students is relatively small, as compared to OECD countries
			The majority of students are enrolled in bachelor’s programmes
			Around one-quarter of new entrants have not yet completed their programmes three years after the expected graduation year
			More than one-third of doctoral students are international students, which is one of the highest shares among OECD countries
		10.3.2.  Graduate outcomes
			The majority of young higher education graduates have good literacy and numeracy skills
			Higher education graduates have higher literacy and numeracy skills and enjoy better social outcomes, as compared to secondary education graduates
			The employment rate of 25-34 year-olds is high in general, including for higher education graduates across education levels and fields of study
			Higher education attainment results in a relatively low earnings premium for graduates
			Higher education graduates are less likely than other workers to work in jobs with routine tasks
			The employment rate for short-cycle higher education graduates is low relative to other levels of education – but this could change when short-cycle programmes are absorbed into professional HEIs
	10.4. Research and engagement
		10.4.1. Inputs and activities
			Women are better represented in research than in most other OECD countries
			The proportion of research staff working in higher education research and development is slightly below the median
			Belgium is one of the least active performers of basic research
			There are strong links between the higher education sector and business in Belgium
		10.4.2.  Internationalisation and knowledge production
			Compared to most other OECD countries, Belgium produces a higher volume of research output, and research appears to have greater impact
			International scientific collaboration is increasing in Flanders
			The share of patent applications from the higher education sector in Belgium is in line with the OECD median
			Belgium has a level of open access to scientific publications in line with the median for OECD countries
	10.5. Scenarios for policy
		10.5.1. Higher education expenditure has not been growing at the same pace as the number of students
		10.5.2. Rationale
		10.5.3. Scenarios for the Flemish Community up to 2025
		10.5.4. Implications for policy
			The baseline scenario: stabilising expenditure per student in higher education
			Achieving the “household expenditure growth” scenario
				A generalised increase in tuition fees
				The “one bachelor’s, one master’s” policy
			Achieving the “non-household private expenditure growth” scenario
				Non-household private funding for education activities
				Private research funding outside universities
	Notes
	References
Chapter 11.  Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance: The Netherlands
	11.1. Higher education performance in the Netherlands
		11.1.1. Introduction
		11.1.2. Context and structure of higher education in the Netherlands
		11.1.3. Higher education scorecard for the Netherlands
	11.2. Financial and human resources
		11.2.1. Financial resources
			The Netherlands spends a relatively large amount on higher education compared to other OECD countries
			The Netherlands has a high share of expenditure from private sources among OECD countries – both household and non-household
			The amount of public expenditure on grants, scholarships and loans is relatively high among OECD countries
			Research in the higher education sector absorbs a large share both of national R&D expenditure and of the expenditure of higher education institutions
		11.2.2. Human resources
			The Netherlands has one of the largest shares of young academic staff in OECD countries
			Government initiatives to support gender equity appear to be having some success
			Staff costs account for 70% of higher education current expenditure
			Three-quarters of teaching staff have a permanent contract, but the share is lower for young staff
			The academic staff-to-student ratio in the Netherlands is close to the median of OECD countries
	11.3. Education
		11.3.1. Access, student profile and completion
			Nearly half of 25-34 year-olds have obtained a higher education qualification
			The majority of students are enrolled in bachelor’s programmes, with UAS taking the majority of new entrants at that level of education
			Older students account for only 5% of new entrants at the bachelor’s level – one of the lowest shares among OECD countries
			Relatively few bachelor’s students study part-time compared to other OECD countries, but part-time studying is more common among older students and in UAS
			There are substantial differences in access to higher education by socio-economic background
			The share of international students is higher than in the majority of OECD countries – but international students are concentrated in universities
			Around two-thirds of new entrants to bachelor’s programmes graduate within three years after the expected graduation year – below the median of OECD countries
		11.3.2. Graduate outcomes
			The majority of young graduates demonstrate good literacy and numeracy skills
			Higher education graduates demonstrate better social outcomes compared to upper secondary education graduates
			Higher education graduates enjoy a premium in employment and earnings
	11.4. Research and engagement
		11.4.1. Inputs and activities
			The proportion of researchers working in the higher education research sector is lower than the median level
			The Netherlands has a lower proportion of the population with a doctorate than most OECD countries
			Collaboration levels between the higher education sector and business are in the top quartile of OECD countries
		11.4.2. Internationalisation and knowledge production
			The Netherlands is a high performer on the quantity and quality of scientific output, according to bibliometric indicators
			Dutch researchers appear more likely to participate in international scientific collaboration, and often have a period of international mobility.
			Open access to scientific documents is more prevalent than in most other OECD countries, but remains low overall
	11.5. Scenarios for policy
		11.5.1. The profile and organisation of the university and UAS sectors in the Netherlands may need some refinement in the future, as demand evolves.
		11.5.2. Rationale
			There are legally specified differences in the missions and orientations of the subsectors in the Netherlands
			There are also a number of other differences in characteristics between the subsectors
			UAS enrol the majority of students, though enrolments in universities have been growing at a faster rate than UAS in recent years
			International student numbers continue to grow, while the demographic profile in the Netherlands may lead to a reduction in domestic demand for higher education
		11.5.3. Scenarios for future demand in the subsectors
		11.5.4. Implications for policy
			Further increases in future demand for universities may not be fulfilled without additional investment
			A “double decline” scenario could limit access opportunities for students in certain groups
			Changing patterns of demand will cut across the sectoral divide, and may lead to the need for consolidation.
			A “UAS resurgence” scenario could be achieved by continued relaxation of certain restrictions on the UAS sector, and by building capacity for internationalisation.
	Notes
	References
Chapter 12. Benchmarking Higher Education System Performance: Norway
	12.1. Higher education performance in Norway
		12.1.1. Introduction
		12.1.2. Context and structure of higher education in Norway
		12.1.3. Norway’s higher education scorecard
	12.2. Financial and human resources
		12.2.1. Financial resources
			Expenditure per student is one of the highest among OECD countries
			The government finances almost all expenditure on higher education
			There is a strong emphasis on research and development in the funding model
		12.2.2. Human resources
			Norway has been successful in attracting younger talent to academia
			Gender parity in academic staff has almost been achieved, particularly in younger age groups
			Teaching staff earn more than the national average salary
			Over two-thirds of teaching staff have a permanent contract
			The academic staff-to-student ratio is one of the highest among OECD countries
	12.3. Education
		12.3.1. Access, student profile and completion
			Access to higher education is widespread in Norway
			A relatively large share of students in Norway is enrolled in long first degree programmes
			Inclusive access policies in Norway
			Norway has a relatively large proportion of part-time students and new entrants older than 24
			Wide differences in access by socio-economic background persist
			Three-quarters of new entrants to bachelor’s programmes graduate on time or within three years from the expected time
			The share of international students is low compared to other OECD countries
		12.3.2. Graduate outcomes
			The adult population is relatively well educated, and basic skills among graduates are above the OECD median
			Higher education creates a moderate employment premium but a relatively low earnings premium for graduates
			There appear to be very positive social outcomes of higher education
	12.4. Research and engagement
		12.4.1. Inputs and activities
			Public investment in research and development is on an upward trajectory
			There are favourable terms and conditions for researchers
		12.4.2. Internationalisation and knowledge production
			Norway has increased the volume of scientific production at a greater pace than other OECD countries…..
			……but the impact of scientific production is closer to median levels
			There is a high level of international collaboration
			Norway is a leader in providing open access to knowledge
	12.5. Scenarios for policy
		12.5.1. Progress in higher education attainment in Norway has been slowing, and other countries are catching up
		12.5.2. Rationale
			Around two-thirds of the population are expected to enter higher education in their lifetimes…
			….with the result that higher entry rates are not translating into the same levels of increase in attainment observed in other OECD countries over the past decade
		12.5.3. Scenarios for future developments to 2030
		12.5.4. Implications for policy
			Achieving higher entry rates
			Achieving higher completion rates
				Understanding non-completion of older students
				Closing the gap between male and female students
				Supporting first-generation students
	Notes
	References
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