Before the Computer: IBM, NCR, Burroughs, & Remington Rand & the Industry They Created, 1865–1956

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data......Page 3
Contents......Page 6
List of Illustrations......Page 8
List of Figures......Page 10
List of Tables......Page 12
Preface......Page 16
Acknowledgments......Page 20
Part One  ORIGINS OF A NEW INDUSTRY, 1865-1920......Page 22
1. From Opportunities to Typewriters......Page 24
Economic Preconditions and Influences......Page 26
Inventors and Vendors on Opportunity......Page 33
Development of the Typewriter......Page 34
The Typewriter Industry between 1890 and 1920......Page 40
2. Adding and Calculating Machines......Page 46
The Burroughs Adding Machine Company......Page 52
Non-U.S. Sales of Adding and Calculating Machines......Page 58
The Felt & Tarrant Manufacturing Company......Page 60
Developments in Europe......Page 62
Summary......Page 64
3. Hollerith and the Development of Punched Card Tabulation......Page 65
Tabulating Equipment Uses and Market, 1890 - World War I......Page 70
Formation and Performance of the Tabulating Machine Company, 1896 - World War I......Page 73
The Powers Accounting Machine Company......Page 77
Hollerith-Powers Rivalry......Page 79
Other Punched Card Projects and Vendors......Page 80
Changing Patterns of the Office Workplace, Technology, and People......Page 81
Development of the Cash Register......Page 85
Rise of the National Cash Register Company......Page 87
TABLE 4.1 Innovations in Cash Registers, 1879-1913......Page 89
NCR\'s Successes......Page 91
TABLE 4.2 Number of NCR Cash Registers Sold, 1884-1922 (selected years)......Page 92
TABLE 4.3 Annual Volumes of Cash Registers Manufactured, National Cash Register and Their Sales Values, 1910-1913......Page 93
TABLE 4.4 Names of Some National Cash Register Company Subsidiaries, late 1890s......Page 94
NCR\'s Legal Problems......Page 95
5. Rudiments of an Industry Identified......Page 100
World War I......Page 101
Size of the Industry......Page 104
Summary......Page 108
Part Two  AN AGE OF OFFICE MACHINES, 1920-194 l......Page 124
6. Economic Conditions and the Role of Standardization......Page 126
Economic Adjustments and Prosperity in the 1920s 
......Page 128
Control and Standardization......Page 131
Market Segments and Suppliers in the 1920s......Page 133
Summary......Page 138
Punched Card Products and Development......Page 140
Consolidations, Courts, and Punched Card Vendors, 1920-1940......Page 148
Practices and Prices in the Tabulating Machine Business......Page 153
Summary......Page 162
Commercial and Administrative Uses......Page 163
Scientific and Engineering Uses 
......Page 168
Summary......Page 171
9. International Trade in Punched Card Machines......Page 172
10. The Great Depression in the United States......Page 179
The Case of IBM......Page 184
The Case of Powers/Remington Rand......Page 189
Summary......Page 191
Industry Structure......Page 193
Large Accounting Machines: Uses and Types......Page 194
Adding Machines: Uses and Types......Page 197
Calculators: Uses and Types......Page 202
Summary......Page 205
Players and Practices......Page 206
Performance of the Burroughs Adding Machine Company......Page 209
Performance of the National Cash Register Company......Page 212
Non-U.S. Activities......Page 216
Industry Volumes......Page 217
Impact of Office Equipment......Page 221
Part Three WORLD WAR II AND THE POSTWAR OFFICE APPLIANCE INDUSTRY, 1941 -1956......Page 236
14. Economics, Government Controls, and Applications......Page 238
Economic Environment......Page 239
U.S. Government Controls over the Industry 
......Page 240
Role of the War Production Board 
......Page 242
Price Controls and Sales Deliveries......Page 248
Wartime Applications......Page 250
Summary......Page 253
Burroughs Adding Machine Company......Page 255
National Cash Register Company......Page 259
International Business Machines......Page 263
Remington Rand......Page 265
Summary......Page 269
Economic Environment......Page 271
Postwar Industry Structure......Page 272
International Business Machines 
......Page 277
Remington Rand......Page 282
National Cash Register......Page 284
Burroughs......Page 287
U.S. Antitrust Activities......Page 291
Foreign Trade......Page 296
U.S. Industry Volumes......Page 304
18. Conclusion: The Roles of Marketing, Distribution, and Technology......Page 313
Marketing and Distribution......Page 315
Competition......Page 322
Practices......Page 325
An American Industry......Page 329
Technological Innovation and Transfer
......Page 330
Technology, Products, and Productivity......Page 335
Notes......Page 344
Index......Page 386