Basic Sciences of Nuclear Medicine

Basic Sciences of Nuclear Medicine......Page 1
Front-matter......Page 2
Basic Sciences of Nuclear Medicine......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Dedication......Page 6
Acknowledgment......Page 10
Contents (with page links)......Page 12
Part I  Physics and Chemistry of Nuclear Medicine......Page 14
1.1.2.1 Wave-Particle Duality......Page 16
1.1.2.4 Atomic Emissions......Page 17
1.1.2.7 Nuclear Binding Energy and Mass Defect......Page 18
Beta Emission......Page 19
Nuclides with Excess Protons and Neutrons......Page 20
Laws of Radioactivity......Page 21
Radioactive Equilibrium......Page 22
(c)  No Equilibrium......Page 23
1.1.4.3 Interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with Matter......Page 24
1.1.4.5 Exponential Attenuation......Page 25
Inelastic (Compton) Scattering......Page 26
1.1.4.8 Photoelectric Effect......Page 27
1.2.1 Types of Exposure......Page 28
What Is Misadministration?......Page 29
1.2.2.1 Management of a Radioactive Spill......Page 30
1.2.2.3 Internal Contamination......Page 31
1.2.3.4 Discharge of the Patient from the Hospital......Page 32
1.2.4.1 Storage of Radioactive Waste......Page 33
1.2.4.4 Disposal of Liquid Waste......Page 34
References......Page 35
Further Reading......Page 36
2.1 Introduction......Page 38
2.2 An Ideal Radiopharmaceutical......Page 39
2.3.1.1 Thermal Neutron Reactions......Page 40
2.3.2 Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides......Page 41
2.3.3 Generator-Produced Radionuclides......Page 42
2.3.3.1 Daughter Yield Equations......Page 43
2.3.3.4 Solid Column Generator......Page 44
82Sr-82Rb Generator......Page 45
2.4.1 Thallium-201......Page 46
2.4.3 Iodine Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 47
2.4.4 Indium-111 Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 48
2.4.11 111In- and 90Y-Ibritumomab Tiuxetan (Zevalin)......Page 49
References......Page 50
3.1.1 Technetium-99m......Page 54
3.1.1.3 Technitium-99m Labeling Kit Designation......Page 55
3.1.2.2 99mTc-Labeled Skeletal Imaging Agents......Page 56
Dimercaptosuccinic Acid (DMSA)......Page 57
Ethylene Dicysteine (EC)......Page 58
Tc-99m-Labeled Tetrofosmin......Page 59
Ethyl Cysteinate Dimer (ECD)......Page 60
Macroaggregated Human Serum Albumin......Page 61
Tin Colloid (TC)......Page 62
Depreotide (NeoSpect)......Page 63
References......Page 64
4.2.3 Radionuclidic Purity......Page 68
Stationary Phases......Page 69
4.2.4.3 Methods for Regional Radioactivity Measurement in TLC Chromatography......Page 70
4.2.7 Ion Exchange......Page 72
4.2.8 Solvent Extraction......Page 74
4.3 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography......Page 75
4.4.3 Toxicity......Page 76
References......Page 77
5.1 Introduction......Page 78
5.2 Choice of the Radionuclide......Page 79
5.2.1 Labelling Methods - Introduction of the Radionuclide......Page 80
5.2.2 Labelling Methods for Fluorine-18......Page 83
5.2.2.1 Electrophilic Substitutions......Page 84
5.2.2.2 Nucleophilic Substitutions......Page 86
5.2.2.3 18F-Fluorinations Via Prosthetic Groups......Page 90
5.2.2.5 18F-Labelled Synthons for Built-Up Radiosyntheses......Page 92
5.2.3 Labelling Methods for Carbon-11......Page 96
5.2.5.1 Labelling Using Radioiodine......Page 100
5.2.5.4 Non-isotopic Exchange (Nucleophilic Labelling)......Page 101
5.2.5.7 Complexes for Labelling with Metallic PET Radionuclides......Page 102
5.3 Conclusions......Page 103
References......Page 104
6.1.1 18F-Labelled PET Radiopharmaceuticals and Their Precursors......Page 116
6.1.1.3 6-[18F]Fluoro-L-DOPA ([18F]F-DOPA)......Page 117
6.1.1.6 16α-[18F]Fluoro-17beta-Estradiol ([18F]FES)......Page 118
6.1.1.8 [18F]Fluoromisonidazole ([18F]F-MISO)......Page 119
6.1.2 11C-Labelled PET Radiopharmaceuticals and Their Precursors......Page 120
6.1.2.2 [11C]Flumazenil......Page 121
6.1.3.2 [15O]Butanol......Page 122
6.2 Automated Radiosyntheses - Modules......Page 123
6.3 Quality Control of PET Radiopharmaceuticals......Page 124
6.4 PET Radiopharmaceuticals in Drug Development......Page 125
References......Page 126
Part II  Dosimetry and Radiation biology......Page 132
7.1.1 Practice of Internal Dosimetry......Page 134
7.2.2 Absorbed Dose......Page 135
7.2.4 Relative Biological Effectiveness (RBE)......Page 136
7.2.6 Tissue Weighting Factor and Effective Dose......Page 137
7.2.8 Cumulated Activity......Page 139
References......Page 140
8.1 Introduction......Page 142
8.3 Internal Radiation Dose Calculation Systems......Page 143
8.3.2 The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP)......Page 144
8.3.3 Practical Considerations......Page 146
8.3.4 RADAR......Page 147
8.3.6 Absorbed Fractions and Dose Conversion Factors......Page 148
8.4.1 Data Sampling......Page 149
8.4.3 Activity Quantitation......Page 150
8.4.4.4 Dose Calculation Steps......Page 151
8.4.4.5 Uncertainties in Internal Dose Calculations......Page 152
8.5 Image-Based, 3D Patient-Specific, Dosimetry......Page 154
References......Page 155
9.2 Stochastic Versus Nonstochastic Effects......Page 158
9.2.2 Stochastic Effects......Page 159
9.3 Cellular Response and Survival......Page 160
9.3.1 Mechanisms of Radiation Damage to Biological Systems......Page 161
9.3.2 Bystander Effect......Page 162
9.4.1 Thyroid Disease......Page 163
References......Page 164
Part III  SPECT and PET Imaging Instrumentation......Page 166
10.1 Introduction......Page 168
10.2.1 Theory......Page 169
10.2.2 Collimators......Page 171
10.2.3 Crystal......Page 175
10.2.4 Photomultiplier Tube......Page 177
10.2.5 Preamplifier......Page 178
10.2.7.2 Multichannel Analyzer......Page 179
10.3.1 Position-Sensitive PMT......Page 180
10.3.3 Silicon Photomultiplier......Page 181
10.4 Semiconductors......Page 182
10.5 SPECT/CT......Page 183
10.5.1 Levels of Integration......Page 184
10.5.2 Early and Recent SPECT/CT Systems......Page 185
10.5.3 Temporal Mismatch......Page 186
10.5.5 SPECT/CT Applications......Page 187
References......Page 188
11.1 Introduction......Page 192
11.1.2 Positron Physics......Page 193
Acollinearity......Page 194
11.2 PET Scanners: Geometry and Components......Page 195
11.2.1 PET/CT......Page 197
11.2.2 Scintillation Crystals......Page 199
11.2.2.3 Gadolinium Oxyorthosilicate......Page 200
11.2.2.4 LSO/LYSO......Page 201
11.2.3 Crystal Photodetector: Light Readout......Page 202
11.3 Events Detected by a PET Scanner......Page 204
11.3.2 Random Coincidences......Page 205
11.4.1 System Sensitivity......Page 206
11.4.3 Noise-Equivalent Count Rate......Page 208
11.4.5 Time of Flight......Page 209
11.4.6 Spatial Resolution......Page 211
Reconstruction......Page 214
11.5.1 Normalization......Page 216
11.5.3 Attenuation Correction......Page 217
11.5.4 Scatter Correction......Page 219
11.6 Conclusion......Page 221
References......Page 222
Part IV Image Analysis, Reconstruction and  Quantitation in Nuclear Medicine......Page 228
12.2 Introduction......Page 230
12.3.1 Analog and Digital Images......Page 231
12.3.2 Image Math......Page 232
12.3.3 Matrix Size and Spatial Resolution......Page 235
12.3.3.2 Spatial Resolution......Page 236
12.4.1 Nearest Neighbor......Page 238
12.5.1 Pseudocolor Displays......Page 239
12.5.2 True Color Displays......Page 240
12.6 Image Filtering......Page 241
12.6.1 Frequency Space......Page 242
Hanning Filters......Page 243
Butterworth Filters......Page 244
12.6.3.2 Fourier Transform in Filter Application......Page 245
12.6.3.3 Fourier Transform in Curve Fitting......Page 247
12.6.3.4 Fourier Transform in the Determination of Wall Thickening......Page 248
12.6.3.5 Fourier Transform in the Calculation of Phase Analysis......Page 249
12.7 Region of Interest Analysis......Page 250
12.7.1 Background Subtraction......Page 251
12.7.2 Time Activity Curves......Page 253
12.8.1 Thresholding......Page 256
12.8.2 Edge Detection......Page 257
12.8.3 Model-Based Approaches......Page 258
12.8.4 Application-Specific Approaches......Page 259
12.9.1 Surface Rendering......Page 260
12.9.3 Volume Rendering......Page 261
12.10 Principles of Image Registration......Page 262
12.11.1 Extraobject Activity......Page 264
12.11.2 Absolute Normalization/Quantification......Page 266
12.11.3 Normalization for Database Quantification......Page 267
References......Page 268
13.1 Introduction......Page 272
13.2.1 History......Page 273
13.2.3 Resolution and Sensitivity......Page 274
13.2.4 Image Acquisition......Page 275
13.2.6 Sinogram......Page 278
13.3.1.1 Simple Backprojection......Page 281
13.3.1.2 Fourier Reconstruction Theorem......Page 283
13.3.1.3 Filtered Backprojection......Page 285
13.3.1.4 Filtering......Page 287
13.3.1.5 Summary of Analytic Image Reconstructions......Page 288
13.3.2 Rebinning Methods......Page 289
13.3.3 Iterative Reconstructions......Page 290
13.3.3.1 System Matrix......Page 291
13.3.3.2 Maximum Likelihood Expectation Maximization......Page 293
13.3.3.3 Ordered Subset Expectation Maximization......Page 294
13.3.3.4 Maximum A Posteriori......Page 295
References......Page 296
14.2 Factors Degrading SPECT Imaging......Page 298
14.2.2 Photon Attenuation......Page 299
14.2.3 Photon Scatter......Page 302
14.2.5 Physiologic and Patient Motions......Page 305
14.2.7 Other SPECT Degradation Factors......Page 306
14.3.2 Measurement of Photon Attenuation......Page 308
14.3.3 Scatter Correction Methods......Page 310
14.3.5 Partial Volume Correction......Page 313
14.3.6 Influence of Correction Algorithms on Image Quality......Page 316
14.4.1 The Basic Calculation Scheme......Page 317
14.4.5 Full Monte Carlo Simulation......Page 319
14.4.6 Considerations Related to Absorbed Dose Calculation Based on SPECT/CT Data......Page 320
References......Page 321
15.1 Introduction......Page 324
15.2 Data Acquisition......Page 326
15.3.3 4D-MSPECT......Page 327
15.3.5 MultiDim......Page 328
15.3.6 Gated SPECT Cardiac Quantification......Page 329
15.3.9 Cardiac Function Method......Page 330
15.4 Quantification of Perfusion Abnormality......Page 331
15.4.1 Summed Perfusion Scores......Page 332
15.4.3 Generation of Normal Limits......Page 333
15.5.1 Gated Cardiac SPECT......Page 334
15.5.2 Acquisition and Processing......Page 335
15.5.4 Regional Function......Page 336
15.5.5 Diastolic Function......Page 337
15.5.7 Tomographic ECG-Gating in Equilibrium Radionuclide Angiocardiography (ERNA)......Page 338
15.6 Factors Affecting Gated SPECT......Page 339
References......Page 340
16.1 Introduction......Page 346
16.2.2 Compartmental Models......Page 347
16.2.4 The 1-Tissue Compartment Model - Blood Flow......Page 348
16.2.5 Multitissue Compartment Models - Neuroreceptor Mapping......Page 349
16.2.5.1 In Vitro Quantification......Page 350
16.2.5.2 In Vivo Quantification......Page 351
16.3 Input Function Issues......Page 352
16.4.2 Binding Potential......Page 354
16.5.1 Reference Tissue Models......Page 355
16.5.2 Spectral Analysis......Page 356
16.5.4 The Constant Infusion Approach......Page 357
16.8 Conclusions......Page 358
The 2-TC Model......Page 359
The Simplified Reference Tissue Model......Page 360
The Full Reference Tissue Model......Page 361
2-TC Model......Page 362
References......Page 363
17.1 Introduction......Page 366
17.2 Input Function......Page 368
17.3 Model and Data-Based Methods and Parameter Estimation......Page 371
17.3.1 Dynamic Three-Compartment Model of 18F-FDG......Page 373
17.3.3 Graphical Analysis of 18F-FDG......Page 374
17.3.4 Spectral Analysis......Page 376
17.4.1 Design of the Acquisition Protocols......Page 379
17.4.2 Data Corrections for Physical Aspects......Page 382
17.4.3 Data Analyses......Page 383
References......Page 386
Part V  Pre-Clinical Imaging......Page 390
18.2.1 Translational Medicine......Page 392
18.2.3 Small Animal Imaging......Page 393
18.3.1 Overview......Page 394
18.3.2.1 Micro X-Ray Computed Tomography......Page 395
18.3.2.3 Ultrasound......Page 397
Bioluminescence Imaging......Page 399
Interaction of Light with Tissue......Page 400
18.3.3.2 Radionuclide......Page 401
18.3.3.4 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography......Page 402
18.3.3.5 Positron Emission Tomography......Page 404
18.3.4.1 CT......Page 405
18.3.4.5 SPECT......Page 406
18.3.5 Multimodality Imaging......Page 407
18.3.5.1 Radionuclide-CT......Page 408
18.3.5.2 PET-MRI......Page 409
18.3.5.3 Optical-Radionuclide......Page 410
18.4 Animal Usage......Page 411
18.4.1 Anesthesia and Physiological Considerations......Page 412
18.4.2 Radiation Dose......Page 413
18.6.1 Cardiology......Page 414
18.6.2 Neurology......Page 415
18.6.3 Oncology......Page 417
18.7 Future Directions......Page 418
References......Page 419
 Index......Page 428