Axe-Heads and Identity: An Investigation Into the Roles of Imported Axe-Heads in Identity Formation in Neolithic Britain

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Information
Dedication
Contents
List of Figures
Preface and acknowledgements
Chapter One
	Introduction
		Aim
			Objectives
				Axe-head
				Background to Neolithic axe-head studies
				IPG
				Petrology or petrography?
				Methodology
				The research questions of this study
				Scope
				Structure
Chapter Two
	Re-connecting British and continental research traditions: dynamic approaches to the relationship between axe-heads and identity
	Figure 2.1 Chronology of jade axe-heads. [From Pétrequin et al. 2011: Figure 5, reproduced with permission]
	Figure 2.2 Comparative distribution of large jade axe-heads (plus small ones in Britain) – black circles, gold objects – white circles, and copper axe-heads – grey circles. CAD. E Gaulthier and J. Desmeulles. Data P. Pétrequin and L. Klassen. Correct to J
Chapter Two
	Re-connecting British and continental research traditions: dynamic approaches to the relationship between axe-heads and identity
		Introduction
			Culture history as an outmoded means of considering identity
				Post-processualism and after
				The artefact or object biography
					Raw materials, sources and production
					Movement and exchange
					Use
					Deposition
					Distance and boundaries
				The impact of processualism on identity studies
				A history of research into Alpine axe-heads in Britain and Ireland, and the recent application of a biographical approach
				Conclusion
Chapter Three
	Figure 3.1 Re-worked Neolithic polished axe-head in the form of a Lower Palaeolithic ficron hand-axe, found in Wroughton, Wiltshire. [Drawing by S.E. James. Copyright Wessex Archaeology, reproduced with permission. Scale added by Katharine Walker]
	‘Afterlives’
	Figure 3.2 Rectangular knife made by reworking a Neolithic Cumbrian Group VI axe-head (private possession). Note the banding which runs along the length of the implement. [Photographs: Copyright Peter Topping, reproduced with permission, with further proc
	Figure 3.3 An Early Bronze Age barbed and tanged arrowhead which is thought to have been made from a fragment of Neolithic polished flint axe-head (Southampton City Council Arts & Heritage, accession number A.1964.214). [Photograph: Katharine Walker, with
	Figure 3.4 Flint axe-head (A.655.63) with multiple episodes of relabelling, in Southampton City Council Arts & Heritage store. [Photograph: Katharine Walker with permission of Southampton City Council Arts & Heritage, copyright reserved]
	Figure 3.5 Group XXVI axe-head found in Gilling, Yorkshire (British Museum: Sturge.1492) IP – Y797 [From J. Evans 1897: 119]
Chapter Three
	‘Afterlives’
		Introduction
			Reworked axe-heads and those found in later contexts
				Collecting, faking and forging
				Challenging preconceptions: the case of ‘the Gilling axe-head’
				Relabelling and the creation of ‘palimpsests’
				Conclusion
Chapter Four
	An investigation into the contexts of jade axe-heads found in Britain, using GIS terrain modelling of HER data
	Figure. 4.1 Model of the spread of Neolithic beginnings presented by Whittle et al. (2011), 95% probability (68% probability in brackets).[Figure from Whittle et al. 2011, redrawn by Katharine Walker with permission]
	Figure 4.2 Sheridan’s multi-strand model for the Neolithization of Britain and IrelandSource: Sheridan 2010c, Figure 3.1. [Copyright Alison Sheridan, reproduced with permission]
	Figure 4.3. Two of the most common forms of Jade axe-head found in Britain which predominate in Scotland and East Anglia. Left: ‘Altenstadt’ type from Cunzierton, Scottish borders (AF 589); Right: ‘Greenlaw’ type from Greenlaw, Scottish borders (L.1951.2)
	[Photographs: Copyright National Museums Scotland, reproduced with permission]
	Figure 4.4 Three different forms of jade axe-head found in Britain. [Above left: ‘Durrington’ type from Breamore in Hampshire, Wiltshire Museum, Devizes DZSWS:DM.1414 (Sheridan et al. 2010: Figure 2) [Copyright National Museums Scotland, reproduced with p
	Figure 4.5 The most recent published distribution map of Alpine axe-heads in Britain, Ireland and the Channel Islands (Sheridan et al. 2011: Figure 2). [Copyright Projet JADE, reproduced with permission]
	Figure 4.6. Eclogite axe-head found in a log boat beside the River Clyde, showing evidence that it may have been roughened after polishing. [After Sheridan et al. 2011: Figure 7, copyright National Museums Scotland]
	Figure 4.7. An example of a terrain model produced using ArchGIS and Ordnance Survey landline data, with finds and monuments from within a 1000m radius of the jade axe-head plotted. The insert shows the terrain without finds and monuments. The detail of p
	Figure 4.8 Numbers of Alpine axe-heads with contextual associations or in direct spatial proximity of either finds or monuments of different dates. [Figure by Katharine Walker]
	Figure 4.9 Jade axe-head lying beneath a wooden board from the Sweet Track, Railway Site. [Photograph:  Somerset Levels Project 1972, reproduced with permission, copyright reserved]
	Figure 4.10 The terrain model and data plots for the area within a 1000m radius of the jade axe-head found in Beckhampton. [Model by Katharine Walker]
	Figure 4.11 Numbers of Alpine axe-heads with finds or monuments within 100m, excluding those with contextual associations and with finds and monuments within direct proximity. [Figure by Katharine Walker]
	Figure 4.12 Numbers of Alpine axe-heads with finds or monuments between 100m and 1000m, excluding those which have either contextual or direct datable spatial associations or monuments or material within 100m (some axe-heads are represented in more than o
	Figure 4.13 ‘Sea-Level change in the Fenland basin based on sea-level curves from Peltier et al. (2002) and tidal modelling carried out by Shennan and Horton (2002) intersected with a digital elevation model of the early Holocene land-surface corrected wh
Chapter Four
	An investigation into the contexts of jade axe-heads found in Britain, using GIS terrain modelling of HER data
		Introduction
			The Mesolithic-Neolithic transition
				The potential implication of jade axe-heads in the Neolithization of Britain
				Methodology
				Results
					Contextual associations and direct spatial proximity
					Finds or monuments between 100m and 1000m
				The rationale behind a search for context
				Analysis
					Discussion of what this relationship means for dating and conclusion
				Conclusion
Chapter Five
	‘Projet Breton’ and the search for Group X
	Figure 5.1 Photomicrographs of representative sections (X 18) A. Group V. B. Group VI. Grains of clear feldspar can be observed. C. Group VII. D. Group VIIa. Much black iron ore is seen in the section. [From Stone & Wallis 1951, Plate V]
	Figure 5.2 Hache à bouton, found in Jersey, made from metadolerite type A (scale in centimetres). [After Le Roux 1999: Figure 49A]
	Figure 5.3 Percentages of Breton metadolerite axe-heads among the stone axe-heads studied, with the red star representing the Plussulien quarry. [After Le Roux 1979: Figure 3]
	Figure 5.4 The current known distribution of Group X axe-heads in Britain based on the information in Appendix Three of this book, including the hache à bouton from Pulborough. [Figure by Katharine Walker]
	Figure 5.5 Breton axe-head recorded as made from ‘enstatite’ found in southwest Penwith. It is the lost fibrolite axe-head from St Levan (Marsden 1919: plate J (no. 6). [Reproduced with permission of Royal Cornwall Museum]
	Figure 5.6 Brittany and its departments. [Figure by Katharine Walker, copyright reserved]
	Figure 5.7 Sites around the Plussulien Group X quarry site. [After Le Roux 1999, Figure 3]
	Figure 5.8 Geology of the Armorican peninsular with the Plussulien quarry site marked by the star. [Source: Geologic map of the Armorican Massif and surrounding areas. By Woudloper 2009 - Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?c
	Figure 5.9 The Sélédin / Plussulien quarry site. [Photograph: Copyright Mik Markham, reproduced with permission]
	Figure 5.10 Polissoir at the Sélédin quarry site: (upper) polissoir; (lower) fine scratches in the polissoir, from polishing axe-heads. [Photographs: Copyright Mik Markham, reproduced with permission]
	Figure 5.11 Flake of Plussulien metadolerite laying on the surface near the quarry site. [Photograph: Copyright Peter Topping, reproduced with permission]
	Figure 5.12 Nodule of fibrolite as it occurs in the field at Plouguin, broken using a geological hammer. [Photograph: Copyright Peter Topping, reproduced with permission]
	Figure 5.13 Haches à pans on display in Penmarc’h Museum, Finistère. [Photograph by Katharine Walker, with permission]
	Figure 5.14 Breton dolerite axe-head found in Shirley, Southampton. above: General view of axe-head face; right: wear pattern on the cutting edge of the axe-head indicative of possible later use. [Photographs by Katharine Walker, with permission of Southa
	Figure 5.15 Fragment of Group X axe-head from Priddy, Somerset. [Photograph: Copyright Bristol Museums, Galleries and Archives, reproduced with permission]
	Figure 5.16 Left: Group X axe-head found in Moordown, Bournemouth, Red House Museum, Christchurch, Druitt Collection N.II.22, already identified.[Photograph by Katharine Walker, with permission of Hampshire Cultural Trust]
	Figure 5.17 Right: Formerly unidentified ‘common type’ Group X axe-head, Shrewsbury Museums Service. (SHYMS: A/2003/087). 165mm in length. [Photograph: Shropshire Council, Shropshire Museums, with further processing by Katharine Walker, reproduced with pe
	Figure 5.18 Irish haches à bouton. Left: ‘axe-head’ found at Derryhoosh in County Monaghan; above: axe-head pendants from Carrowkeel Cairn G. [After Herity 1975, Figure 95]
	Figure 5.19 Axe-head from the Isle of Wight (PAS IOW-2E7F21). Photograph courtesy of the Portable Antiquities Scheme
Chapter Five
	‘Projet Breton’ and the search for Group X
		Introduction
			The background to Group X
				Fieldwork in Brittany
				The Sélédin / Plussulien quarry and associated dating
				Products
				Fibrolite
					Raw material
					Workshops
					Other lithologies
					Products
					Flint and chalcedony
				A re-examination of Breton axe-heads in Britain
				A previously unidentified Group X axe-head
				Other evidence for the Breton connection, ‘trans-Manche west’, and the social implications of Breton axe-heads in Britain
				An interesting case study from the Isle of Wight
				A future research strategy
				Summary and conclusion
Chapter Six
	‘Crudwell’ type, ‘Smerrick’ type, and marbled all-over-polished axe-heads in Neolithic Britain
	Figure 6.1 Two examples of elongated marbled axe-head published by the Society of Antiquaries for Scotland in 1900. Left: Easter, Auquharney, Aberdeenshire (1/2); right: Smerrick, Enzie, Banffshire (1/2). [Paul 1900, Figure 1]
	Figure 6.2 Marbled flint axe-head found in Hayscastle, Pembrokeshire – scale in centimetres. 71mm x 230mm x 29mm. [Modified from a photograph reproduced with kind permission of Tenby Museum]
	Figure 6.3 Hagelbjerggård hoard of thin-butted axe-heads from Jutland, made from marbled flint – National Museum Denmark, A50184-98. [Photograph by Lennart Larsen - Votivfund from Hagelbjerggård, Copyright CC-BY-SA]
	Figure 6.4 The distribution of Northern, Southern and Transitional Province flint. [After Mortimore et al 2001, Figure 1.6]
	Figure 6.5 Flint axe-head from Vaumort, Yonne, France – Scale in centimetres. (242 x 77 x 37mm – weight: 734.8g) – Museum of Toulouse Accession no. MHNT PRE.2010.0.104.1, from the collection of Edouard and Louis Laret. [Photograph by Rama, Wikimedia Commo
	Figure 6.6 Southern and Northern province flint samples. Left and right: flint raw material from the Thames gravel at Swanscombe. The black ‘centres’ are clearly visible.  Bottom left: Pale grey Northern Province flint from North Norfolk. Raw material kin
	Figure 6.7 These four flint axe-heads were found at Craigentinny, Edinburgh, two at Smerrick, Enzie, Banffshire, and the fourth at Gilmerton, Athelstaneford, East Lothian.[Photograph: Copyright National Museums Scotland, reproduced with permission]
	Figure 6.8 A flint axe-head identified by The Portable Antiquities Scheme, from Esher, Surrey ID 538117 – private possession. [Photograph courtesy of the Portable Antiquities Scheme]
Chapter Six
	‘Crudwell’ type, ‘Smerrick’ type, and marbled all-over-polished axe-heads in Neolithic Britain
		Introduction
			Characteristics of ‘Crudwell-Smerrick’ axe-heads
				A history of recognition of elongated marbled axe-heads
				Numbers and distribution
				Dating, associations, and contexts
				A discussion of origin
				The social significance of ‘Crudwell-Smerrick’ type axe-heads
				Future research
				Discussion and conclusion
Chapter Seven
	The rectangular-sectioned axe-head in Britain and its implications for understanding the Neolithic
	Figure 7.1 Rectangular-sectioned axe-head and diagnostic flakes from its production. [After Hansen & Madsen 1983, Figure 11]
	Figure 7.2 Left: Territorial groups of the TRB. [Katharine Walker]
	Figure 7.3 Below: Schematic overview of the northwestern European Neolithic chronological sequence. [After van Gijn 2010, Figure 1.3]
	Figure 7.4 Neolithic Scandinavian point found on a beach in Tain, Highland. Drawing by Marion O’Neil. Copyright National Museums Scotland, reproduced with permission
	Figure 7.5 One of the numerous TRB axe-heads (specimen number 477) obtained for Brighton Museum by the son of its founder, Ernest Willett. These are not Neolithic imports to Britain but are ‘recent’ acquisitions. [Photograph: Katharine Walker, taken with
	Figure 7.6 Unlabelled TRB axe-head probably from the collection of Ben Harrison, in Maidstone Museum. [Photograph: Katharine Walker, taken with permission, copyright reserved]
	Figure 7.7 Current known distribution of axe-heads with rectangular sections which have British find-spots attributed. [Figure by Katharine Walker, based on information in Appendix Five]
	Figure 7.8 Large ceremonial TRB axe-head, a collectors’ piece, in Southampton Museum store (A1963.631). It measures 64mm wide x 371mm long x 19mm thick.[Photograph by Katharine Walker with permission of Southampton City Council Arts & Heritage, copyright
	Figure 7.10 Thin-butted axe-head excavated from the loam core of Julliberrie’s Grave non-megalithic long barrow, Chilham, Kent. [S. Piggott 1939, reproduced with permission of the Society of Antiquaries]
	Figure 7.9 A Vespestad adze-head (B5272) and a Vestland adze-head (B4429). [Drawing: Bergsvik and Østmo 2011, fig. 3, reproduced from Brøgger 1907, 29, 39, reproduced with permission]
	Figure 7.11 Flint axe-head ‘H. Coll. CAMBRIDGE 1869’ in Ipswich Museum (1946-181.56). It has a patch of partially ground cortex on the butt edge, but the rest of the edge is crushed not ground. While probably being British in origin, the size of the facet
	Figure 7.12 Plan of Jessup’s excavation of Julliberrie’s Grave. [After Jessup 1939]
	Figure 7.13. Blade published by Clark and Piggott (1933) as made from Grand Pressigny flint – labelled Furlong Farm, West Grimstead. 166mm x 40mm x 14mm. [Image: redrawn from illustration in Pitts’s archive]
Chapter Seven
	The rectangular-sectioned axe-head in Britain and its implications for understanding the Neolithic
		Introduction
			Defining rectangular-sectioned axe-heads for the purposes of this study
				Geographical and cultural context
				The rectangular-sectioned axe-head in Britain and other imported material attributed to the TRB or cross-North Sea connections
				Recent Scandinavian axe-head ‘manuports’
				Number and distribution of specimens with attributed British find-spots
				Origins and typo-chronology
					Origins
					Non-flint axe-heads
					Thin-butted axe-heads in Britain
					Thick-butted axe-heads in Britain
				Contexts
					The Julliberrie’s Grave axe-head: a critical review of the evidence
				Use
				Sir Edmund Gabriel Davis (1862-1939)
					Other contexts
				British ‘copies’?
				What flint objects found in TRB and SGC contexts did not travel to Britain and why?
					Grand Pressigny and Romigny-Léhry flint
					Heligoland flint
				Routes
				Social significance
				Summary and conclusion
Chapter Eight
	Answering the original questions
	Figure 8.1 Stylised graphs to show the possible different models for the introduction of Alpine jade axe-heads into Britain, based on the evidence presented in Chapter Four. 1) Sheridan’s model; 2) The majority arriving shortly after 4000 BC then tailing
	Figure 8.2 Pyramid-style diagram showing tiers of jade axe-head replication in Early Neolithic Britain. [Katharine Walker]
	Figure 8.3 Axe-head pendants. Left: Perforated Group VI axe-head from Cargill, Perthshire (Royal Museum of Scotland); Right: Perforated jade axe-head pendant. [Drawings by Katharine Walker based on Bradley 1990a, Figure 2 and Sheridan et al. 2011, Figure.
	Figure 8.4 Left: Brownstone Farm chisel made from jade; below: flint chisel found in Norfolk (NMS-C0C87). [Photographs: left: P. Pétrequin/JADE, reproduced with permission; right: courtesy of the Portable Antiquities Scheme]
	Figure 8.5a Comparative distributions of elements of Early Neolithic evidence. Distribution of jade axe-heads in Britain. [Map by Katharine Walker based on Projet JADE]
	Figure 8.5b Comparative distributions of elements of Early Neolithic evidence. Distribution of Carinated Bowl pottery assemblages. [Map by Katharine Walker based on J. Thomas 2013]
	Figure 8.6 Distribution of jade axe-heads in Britain mapped onto the source areas for known Groups of axe-heads. Note the absence of jade axe-heads in the area of the Lincolnshire coast, the proposed source area for ‘Crudwell-Smerrick’ axe-heads. [Map: Ka
	Figure 8.7 Axe-head from Lound Run, not part of the Lound Run hoard, which was sampled by the British Museum and found to be made from Grimes Graves floorstone. [Drawing by Katharine Walker]
Chapter Eight
	Answering the original questions
		Introduction
			What can be recognized as ‘imported’ Neolithic axe-heads in Britain and can anything more be said about when they arrived?
				Jade
					Breton fibrolite and metadolerite type A
					‘Crudwell-Smerrick’ type
					‘TRB’ and similar forms with rectangular sections
				Why did they arrive in Britain when they did?
					Breton fibrolite and metadolerite type A
					Jade
					‘Crudwell-Smerrick’ type
					‘TRB’ and similar forms
				What is the evidence for emulation and copying of imported axe-heads?
					Jade
					Breton fibrolite and metadolerite type A
					‘TRB’ and similar forms
				What do patterns of distribution and deposition reveal about the relationship between imported axe-heads and those made in Britain?
					Jade
					Breton fibrolite and metadolerite type A
					‘Crudwell-Smerrick’ type, and ‘TRB’ and similar forms with rectangular sections
					Depositions
				Hoard or cache? A note on terminology
				Did imported axe-heads contribute to the formation of different Neolithic identities within Britain at different times and in different places?
					Early Neolithic
					Middle Neolithic
					Chalcolithic/Beaker and Early Bronze Age
					Later Neolithic
				Summary and final thoughts
Appendix One
	Figure A1.1 Table of all known published jade axe-heads with attributed British find-spot locations (correct until 2017). Shaded in grey are axe-heads with ‘precise’ find-spot locations, included in Appendix Two)
Appendix Two
	Find-spot locations, and archaeology of Mesolithic to Roman date within a 1000m radius, for 43 jade axe-heads found in Britain, presented as 41 GIS terrain models with accompanying text
	Figure A2.1 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Aldeby Norfolk © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.2 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Appin, Argyll and Bute © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.3 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Beckford, Worcestershire © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.4 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Beckhampton, Wiltshire © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.5 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Bergh Apton, Norfolk © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.6 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Breamore, Hampshire. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.7 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade chisel found in Brownstone Farm, Kingswear, Devon. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.8 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Chester, Cheshire – Hunter Street Devon. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.9 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Coddington, Nottinghamshire. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.10 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Diss, Norfolk – South Lopham (Lopham Ford). © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.11 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Dunfermline, Pitreavie House, Fife. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.12 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Durrington (now Figheldean), Wiltshire - Stonehenge. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.13 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Fakenham Magna, Suffolk. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.14 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Fortingall, Perth and Kinross (formerly Perthshire) - Comrie Farm, near Drummond Hill. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.15 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Fort William, Highland (formerly Inverness-shire) – River Spean (near to). © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.16 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Glasgow, City of Glasgow (formerly Lanarkshire) Old St. Enoch’s Church. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure 2.17 Terrain model showing the find-spot of a jade axe-head found in Glastonbury, Somerset – Shapwick, Sweet Track. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.18 Terrain model showing the find-spots of jade axe-heads found in Glenluce, Dumfries and Galloway (formerly Wigtownshire) - Glenjorrie Burn, Glenjorrie Farm. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.19 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Greenlaw, Scottish Borders (formerly Berwickshire) – Greenlawdean. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure 2.20 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Inverness, Highland (formerly Inverness-shire) – Railway Stores building. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure 2.21 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Iwerne Courtney, Dorset – Hambledon Hill. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2. 22 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Kirkby Lonsdale, Addi Croft, near High Casterton, Cumbria. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.23 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Kirkmabreck, Dumfries and Galloway (former Stewartry of Kirkcudbright) - Cairnholy I. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.24 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Knebworth, Hertfordshire. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.25 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in London, King Street. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.26 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in London, Tower of London.© Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.27 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in London, Vauxhall Bridge. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.28 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Lyme Handley, Cheshire – Lyme Park. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.29 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Methlick, Aberdeenshire - Blackhouse Farm. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.30 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Mortlake, Surrey.  © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.31 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Oxnam I and II, Scottish Borders (formely Roxburghshire) - Cunzierton Farm. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.32 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Parkstone, Dorset. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.33 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Peebleshire (region of) possibly Innerleithen, Scottish Borders (formerly Peebleshire) – Traquair House. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Lic
	Figure A2.34 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Saham Toney, Norfolk. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.35 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Saxthorpe, Norfolk. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A.36 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Sidmouth, High Peak, Devon. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.37 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Snettisham, Norfolk. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.38 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Staines, Surrey – Hithermoor Pit, near Staines Moor. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure 2.39 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Swaffham Bulbeck (in reality, Bottisham) Cambridgeshire - Bottisham Road, near Bottisham. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.40 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Winterslow, Wiltshire – near Lopcombe Corner. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
	Figure A2.41 Terrain model showing the find-spots of a jade axe-heads found in Wookey, Ebbor Gorge. © Crown Copyright and Database Right 2015. Ordnance Survey (Digimap Licence)
Appendix Three
	Figure A3.1 A table of all known Group X axe-heads and a table of Breton fibrolite axe-heads with attributed British find-spot locations
Appendix Four
	Figure A4.1 Table of all published ‘Crudwell-Smerrick’ type axe-heads
Appendix Five
	Figure A5.1 Table of all known axe-heads with rectangular sections which have British find-spot locations attributed. Highlighted in grey are axe-heads of probable Scandinavian origin. This is a summary of the information presented in Appendix Six.
Appendix Six
	Corpus of all known axe-heads with rectangular sections which have British find-spot locations attributed (summarised in Appendix Five)
	Figure A6.1 The Billingford chisel, 29mm x 113mm x 25mm (scale in centimetres). [Drawing: Katharine Walker after Anon, possibly J. Wymer (NHER 21132 secondary file)]
		Figure A6.2 Flint rectangular-sectioned axe-head allegedly found at Brentford Ferry. [Drawing by Katharine Walker after Adkins and Jackson 1978]
	Figure A6.3 Flint rectangular-sectioned axe-head allegedly found at Brentford Ferry. [Drawing by Katharine Walker after Adkins and Jackson 1978]
	Figure A6.4 Drawing of the chisel from Brownslade, Pembrokeshire, 24mm x 150mm x 18mm (approximately) Scale in centimetres. [Drawing by Katharine Walker, after Wheeler 1925, Figure 1. Reproduced by permission of the Secretary to the Delegates of Oxford Un
	Figure A6.5 Square-butted axe-head allegedly found near Cambridge – Scale 1:1. [Drawing by Katharine Walker after Smith 1922 (incorrectly labelled as coming from Twickenham)]
	Figure A6.6 Flint axe-head from the River Stour, near Canford, Dorset (scale in centimetres). [Drawing by Katharine Walker after C.M. Piggott 1945]
	Figure A6.7 Rectangular-sectioned flint axe-head from Canterbury, Kent. [Drawing by Katharine Walker]
	Figure A6.8 Rectangular-sectioned axe-head from Manchester: 44mm x 107mm x 17mm. [Photograph from Willett 1953, Plate 17 with processing]
	Figure A6.9 Flint axe-head with rectangular section from Colwall Tunnel, Hertfordshire. Image reproduced from Pitts’s archive (Scale 1:1)
	Figure A6.10 Thick-butted axe-head  found in Crickhowell, Breconshire (scale in centimetres). [Photograph: Katharine Walker, taken with permission of National Museum Wales]
	Figure A6.11 Axe-head with rectangular section found in Enfield. [Drawing by Katharine Walker after Grinsell 1951, fig].
	Figure A6.12 Adze-head of olivine basalt, allegedly found in Gateshead. [Drawing: Pollard 1998, reproduced with permission of the Society of Antiquaries, Newcastle upon Tyne]
	Figure A6.13 Flint chisel with rectangular section found in Glentham, in Lincolnshire (scale in centimetres). [Redrawn by Katharine Walker from Mike Pitts’s archive (no. 10526)]
	Figure A6.14 Adze-head made from tuff with rectangular section found in Godalming, Surrey (scale in centimetres). [Drawing by Katharine Walker after Field and Wooley 1984, fig. 4 (52)]
	Figure A6.15 Flint axe-head found in Gunthorpe. [Drawing by Katharine Walker after an image in HER secondary file, possibly by John Wymer. Scale in centimetres]
	Figure A6.16 Two axe-heads with rectangular sections, allegedly found at Kitching Farm, Stanley, near Wakefield (Scale in centimetres). [Source: R. Smith 1932, fig. 4]
	Figure A6.17 Adze-head made from olivine basalt with rectangular section found in Lingfield, Surrey (scale in centimetres). [Drawing by Katharine Walker after Field and Wooley 1984, fig. 4 (68)]
	Figure A6.18 Axe-head found at Maindy Camp, near Newport, Monmouthshire. [Image from Morris 1909, reproduced by Wheeler 1925, fig. 18. No scale was provided and the axe-head could not be located.]
	Figure A6.19 Axe-head made from a slaty rock, found in Ness, Yorkshire. [From Evans 1897: 117]
	Figure A6.20 Flint axe-head with rectangular section, in Tenby Museum, simply labelled ‘Newport’, 85mm x 220mm x 25mm. [Photograph: Tenby Museum, reproduced with permission]
	Figure A6.21 Flint axe-head found in Prees Green, Shropshire (scale in centimetres). [Photograph by David Mullin, processed by Katharine Walker, reproduced with permission]
	Figure A6.22 Axe-head and dagger found in Ramsgate, Kent. Image: Section from Hicks 1878
	Figure A6.23 Axe-head from Summer Hill, Monmouthshire (Scale in centimetres). [Drawing: Katharine Walker, after Savory 1947, Figure 2]
	Figure A6.24 Thick-butted axe-head from the River Thames at Twickenham (Scale in centimetres). [Drawing by Katharine Walker after R. Smith 1922, fig. 17 (incorrectly labelled as found in Cambridge)]
	Figure A6.25 Adze-head found in Ellesborough, Buckinghamshire (Scale in centimetres). [Images: Hollis 1936, plate, reproduced with permission of Buckinghamshire Archaeological Society]
	Figure A6.26 Axe-head found in Woking, Surrey. Drawing by Katharine Walker
	Figure A6.27 Axe-head found near Woodbridge, Suffolk (Scale in centimetres). [Source: redrawn from Pitts archive]
	Figure A6.28 Axe-head found in Wouldham, Kent. [Image: Williams 2003: Figure 1, reproduced with permission of the Council for Kentish Archaeology]
	Figure A6.29 Flint axe-head simply labelled ‘YORKSHIRE’, in Cambridge Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. Scale in centimetres. Photograph: Author
Appendix Seven
	FIgure A7.1 Caches and hoards of axe-heads in Britain. Please note, almost all of the data included in this corpus has been taken directly from Pitts 1996, Appendix One, with a few additions by the author.
Bibliography