Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service

Cover
Contents
SECTION I: Careers in the Automotive Service Area
	1 Automotive Background and Overview
		Historical Background
		Bodies
		Chassis Systems Overview
		Frames
		Engine Design Evolution
		Engine Systems Overview
		Power Train Overview
		Electrical/Electronic Systems Overview
		Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Overview
		Eight Areas of Automotive Service
	2 Careers in the Automotive Service Industry
		The Need for Automotive Technicians
		The Need for Continuous Vehicle Service
		Technician Work Sites
		Technician Job Classifications
		Parts-Related Positions
		Sales Jobs—Used Vehicles; New Vehicles
		Other Careers in the Automotive Industry
		Typical Automotive Organization Arrangement
	3 Starting a Career in the Automotive Industry
		Preparing for an Automotive Service Career
		Developing an Employment Plan
		Preparing a Resume
		Preparing a Cover Letter
		Contacting Potential Employers
		Completing the Employment Application
		The Interview
		After the Interview
		Accepting Employment
		Technician Pay Methods
		Payroll Deductions
		Housing and Living Expenses
		Becoming a Shop Owner
	4 Working as a Professional Service Technician
		Professionalism
		Communications
		What Happens the First Day?
		Duties of a Service Technician
		Flagging a Work Order
		Sublet Repairs
		Parts Replacement
		Working with a Mentor
		Teamwork
		Advancement Skills
		Housekeeping Duties
		Self-Management
		Job Evaluation
	5 Technician Certification
		Automobile Technician Certification Tests
		Test-Taking Tips
		Canada's Automotive Apprenticeship Program (Red Seal)
		Update Training
SECTION II: Safety, Environmental, and Health Concerns
	6 Shop Safety
		Personal Protective Equipment
		Safety Tips for Technicians
		Cleaning Methods and Processes
		Electrical Cord Safety
		Jump-Starting and Battery Safety
		Fire Extinguishers
		Fire Blankets
		First-Aid and Eye Wash Stations
	7 Environmental and Health Concerns
		Occupational Safety and Health Act
		Hazardous Waste
		Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
		Right-to-Know Laws
		Clean Air Act
		Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS)
		The Dangers of Exposure to Asbestos
		Used Brake Fluid
		Used Oil
		Solvent Hazards and Regulatory Status
		Coolant Disposal
		Lead-Acid Battery Waste
		Fuel Safety and Storage
		Airbag Handling
		Used Tire Disposal
		Air-Conditioning Refrigerant Oil Disposal
		Infection Control Precautions
SECTION III: Tools, Shop Equipment, and Measuring
	8 Fasteners and Thread Repair
		Threaded Fasteners
		Metric Bolts
		Grades of Bolts
		Tensile Strength
		Nuts
		Taps and Dies
		Thread Pitch Gauge
		Sheet Metal Screws
		Washers
		Snap Rings and Clips
		How to Avoid Broken Fasteners
		Thread Repair Inserts
	9 Hand Tools
		Wrenches
		Ratchets, Sockets, and Extensions
		Screwdrivers
		Hammers and Mallets
		Pliers
		Cutters
		Punches and Chisels
		Removers
		Hacksaws
		Basic Hand Tool List
		Tool Sets and Accessories
		Seal Drivers and Pullers
		Electrical Hand Tools
		Safety Tips for Using Hand Tools
		Hand Tool Maintenance
	10 Power Tools and Shop Equipment
		Air Compressor
		Air and Electrically Operated Tools
		Trouble Lights
		Bench/Pedestal Grinder
		Bench Vise
		Hydraulic Presses
		Portable Crane and Chain Hoist
		Engine Stands
		Care and Maintenance of Shop Equipment
	11 Vehicle Lifting and Hoisting
		Floor Jack
		Creepers
		Vehicle Hoists
		Drive-On Ramps
	12 Measuring Systems and Tools
		English Customary Measuring System
		Metric System of Measure
		Linear Measurements (Tape Measure/Rule)
		Micrometer
		Telescopic Gauge
		Small-Hole Gauge
		Vernier Dial Caliper
		Feeler Gauge
		Straightedge
		Dial Indicator
		Dial Bore Gauge
		Depth Micrometer
SECTION IV: Principles, Math, and Calculations
	13 Scientific Principles and Materials
		Scientific Method
		Energy Principles
		Torque
		Work
		Power
		Horsepower
		Newton's Laws of Motion
		Kinetic Energy
		Inertia
		Mechanical Principles
		Heat and Temperature
		Acids and Bases
		Gas Laws
		Sound and Acoustics
		Plastics
		Iron and Steel
		SAE Steel Designations
		Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
	14 Math, Charts, and Calculations
		Decimals
		Percentage
		Scientific Notation
		Adding and Subtracting
		Fractions
		Multiplying and Dividing
		Mathematical Formulas
		Fuel Economy Calculator
		Gear Ratios
		Graphs, Charts, and Diagrams
SECTION V: Vehicle Service Information and Routine Maintenance
	15 Service Information
		Vehicle Service History Records
		Owner's Manuals
		Lubrication Guides
		Service Manuals
		Advantages of Hard Copy versus Electronic Service Information
		Disadvantages of Hard Copy versus Electronic Service Information
		Types of Service Information
		Labor Guide Manuals
		How to Use Hard Copy Manuals
		Electronic Service Information
		Hotline Services
		Speciality Repair Manuals
		Aftermarket Supplies Guides and Catalogs
	16 Vehicle Identification and Emission Ratings
		Parts of a Vehicle
		Front-Wheel Drive versus Rear-Wheel Drive
		Vehicle Identification
		Vehicle Safety Certification Label
		VECI Label
		Emission Standards in the United States
		Calibration Codes
		Casting Numbers
	17 Preventative Maintenance and Service Procedures
		Getting Ready for Service
		Wiper Blade Inspection and Replacement
		Cabin Filter Replacement
		Air Filter Inspection/Replacement
		Brake Fluid Level Inspection
		Brake Fluid Types
		Engine Oil Level and Condition
		Engine Oil Changes
		Viscosity of Oil (SAE Rating)
		Quality of Oil (API Rating)
		ILSAC Oil Rating
		Synthetic Engine Oil
		European Oil Rating System
		Engine Oil Disposal
		Oil Filters
		Cooling System Service
		Types of Coolants
		Antifreeze/Coolant Disposal
		Radiator and Heater Hoses
		Automatic Transmission Fluid Check
		Types of Automatic Transmission Fluid
		Power Steering Fluid
		Windshield Washer Fluid
		Accessory Drive Belt Inspection
		Checking Tire Pressure
		Tire Rotation
		Wheel Mounting Torque
		Tire Inspection
		Chassis Lubrication
		Chassis Grease
		Other Under-the-Vehicle Lubrication Checks
		Differential Fluid Check
		Differential Lubricants
		Manual Transmission/Transaxle Lubricant Check
SECTION VI: Engine Repair
	18 Gasoline Engine Operation, Parts, and Specifications
		Energy and Power
		Engine Construction Overview
		Four-Stroke Cycle Operation
		The 720° Cycle
		Engine Classification and Construction
		Engine Rotation Direction
		Bore
		Stroke
		Engine Displacement
		Compression Ratio
		The Crankshaft Determines the Stroke
		Power
		Horsepower and Altitude
	19 Diesel Engine Operation and Diagnosis
		Diesel Engines
		Three Phases of Combustion
		Diesel Engine Construction
		Fuel Tank and Lift Pump
		Injection Pump
		HEUI System
		Diesel Injector Nozzles
		Diesel Injector Nozzle Operation
		Glow Plugs
		Engine-Driven Vacuum Pump
		Diesel Fuel
		Diesel Fuel Specific Gravity Testing
		Diesel Fuel Heaters
		Heated Intake Air
		Accelerator Pedal Position Sensor
		Soot or Particulate Matter
		Diesel Oxidation Catalyst (DOC)
		Diesel Exhaust Particulate Filter (DPF)
		Diesel Particulate Filter Regeneration
		Ash Loading
		Diesel Exhaust Smoke Diagnosis
		Scan Tool Diagnosis
		Compression Testing
		Glow Plug Resistance Balance Test
		Injector Pop Testing
		Diesel Emission Testing
	20 Cooling System Operation and Diagnosis
		Cooling System Purpose and Function
		Low-Temperature Engine Problems
		High-Temperature Engine Problems
		Cooling System Design
		Thermostat Temperature Control
		Testing the Thermostat
		Thermostat Replacement
		Antifreeze/Coolant
		Antifreeze Can Freeze
		Hydrometer Testing
		Recycling Coolant
		Disposing of Used Coolant
		Radiator Design and Function
		Pressure Cap
		Surge Tank
		Metric Radiator Caps
		Coolant Recovery System
		Testing the Cooling System
		Water Pump
		Cooling Fans
		Thermostatic Fans
		Electric Cooling Fans
		Coolant Temperature Warning Light
		Common Causes of Overheating
		Cooling System Maintenance
		Flush and Refill
		Burping the System
		Hoses
		Cleaning the Radiator Exterior
	21 Lubrication System Operation and Diagnosis
		Lubrication Principles
		Engine Lubrication Systems
		Oil Pumps
		Oil Pressure Regulation
		Factors Affecting Oil Pressure
		Oil Pump Checks
		Oil Passages in the Block
		Valve Train Lubrication
		Oil Pans
		Oil Coolers
		Oil Pressure Warning Lamp
	22 Intake and Exhaust Systems
		Air Intake Filtration
		Engine Air Temperature Requirements
		Throttle-Body Injection Intake Manifolds
		Port Fuel-Injection Intake Manifolds
		Variable Intakes
		Plastic Intake Manifolds
		Exhaust Gas Recirculation Passages
		Upper and Lower Intake Manifolds
		Exhaust Manifold Design
		Exhaust Manifold Gaskets
		Mufflers
	23 Turbocharging and Supercharging
		Airflow Requirements
		Supercharging Principles
		Superchargers
		Turbochargers
		Boost Control
		Turbocharger Failures
	24 Engine Condition Diagnosis
		Typical Engine-Related Complaints
		Engine Smoke Diagnosis
		The Driver Is Your Best Resource
		Visual Checks
		Engine Noise Diagnosis
		Oil Pressure Testing
		Oil Pressure Warning Lamp
		Compression Test
		Wet Compression Test
		Running (Dynamic) Compression Test
		Cylinder Leakage Test
		Cylinder Power Balance Test
		Power Balance Test Procedure
		Vacuum Tests
		Exhaust Restriction Test
		Testing Back Pressure with a Vacuum Gauge
		Testing Back Pressure with a Pressure Gauge
		Diagnosing Head Gasket Failure
		Dash Warning Lights
	25 Engine Disassembly, Cleaning, and Crack Detection
		Engine Removal
		Engine Disassembly
		Checking Cylinder Bore
		Removing the Oil Pan
		Removing the Cylinder Ridge
		Removing the Pistons
		Removing the Harmonic Balancer
		Removing the Timing Chain and Camshaft
		Removing the Main Bearing and Crankshaft
		Remove and Disassemble the Cylinder Head
		Mechanical Cleaning
		Chemical Cleaners
		Solvent-Based Cleaning
		Water-Based Chemical Cleaning
		Spray Washing
		Steam Cleaning
		Thermal Cleaning
		Cold Tank Cleaning
		Hot Tank Cleaning
		Vapor Cleaning
		Ultrasonic Cleaning
		Vibratory Cleaning
		Blasters
		Visual Inspection
		Magnetic Crack Inspection
		Dye-Penetrant Testing
		Fluorescent-Penetrant Testing
		Pressure Testing
		Crack Repair
		Crack-Welding Cast Iron
		Crack-Welding Aluminum
		Crack Plugging
	26 Cylinder Heads and Valves
		The Hemispherical Combustion Chamber
		The Wedge Combustion Chamber
		Multiple-Valve Combustion Chamber
		Intake and Exhaust Ports
		Removing the Overhead Camshaft
		Cylinder Head Reconditioning Sequence
		Valve Guides
		Valve Guide Replacement
		Intake and Exhaust Valves
		Valve Reconditioning Procedure
		Valve Seat Replacement
		Valve Stem Height
		Valve Stem Seals
		Installing the Valves
	27 Camshafts and Valve Trains
		Camshaft Function
		Camshaft Location
		Camshaft Problem Diagnosis
		Camshaft Removal
		Camshaft Drives
		Camshaft Belt Drives
		Rocker Arms
		Pushrods
		Camshaft Duration
		Cam Timing Chart
		Installing the Camshaft
		Degreeing the Camshaft
		Lifters
	28 Pistons, Rings, and Connecting Rods
		Purpose and Function of Pistons, Rings, and Connecting Rods
		Piston and Rod Removal
		Piston Design
		Piston Heads
		Cam Ground Pistons
		Piston Finish
		Piston Head Size
		Piston Strut Inserts
		Hypereutectic Pistons
		Forged Pistons
		Piston Pins
		Piston Pin Retaining Methods
		Piston Ring Grooves
		Piston Rings
		Compression Rings
		Chromium Piston Rings
		Piston Service
		Connecting Rods
		Connecting Rod Design
		Rod Twist
		Connecting Rod Service
		Piston and Rod Assembly
		Piston Ring Service
	29 Engine Blocks, Crankshafts, and Bearings
		Engine Blocks
		Engine Block Service
		Block Cleaning and Preparation for Assembly
		Crankshaft Purpose and Function
		Main Bearing Journals
		Rod Bearing Journals
		Surface Finish
		Journal Hardness
		Forged Crankshafts
		Cast Crankshafts
		V-8 Engine Crankshafts
		Four-Cylinder Engine Crankshafts
		Five-Cylinder Engine Crankshafts
		Three-Cylinder Engine Crankshafts
		Odd-Firing 90-Degree V-6 Engine Crankshafts
		Even-Firing 90-Degree V-6 Engine Crankshafts
		60-Degree V-6 Engine Crankshafts
		Counterweights
		Vibration Damage
		Externally and Internally Balanced Engines
		Crankshaft Oiling Holes
		Crankshaft Inspection
		Crankshaft Grinding
		Welding a Crankshaft
		Relieving Stress on the Crankshaft
		Engine Bearings
		Bearing Loads
		Bearing Fatigue
		Bearing Conformability
		Bearing Embedability
		Bearing Damage Resistance
		Bearing Materials
		Bearing Manufacturing
		Bearing Sizes
		Bearing Clearance
		Bearing Spread and Crush
		Camshaft Bearings
	30 Engine Blueprinting and Assembly
		Blueprinting
		Block Preparation
		Installing Cups and Plugs
		Installing Cam Bearings
		Causes of Premature Bearing Failure
		Measuring Main Bearing Clearance
		Correcting Bearing Clearance
		Lip Seal Installation
		Rope Seal Installation
		Installing the Crankshaft
		Measuring Thrust Bearing Clearance
		Tightening Procedure for the Main Bearing
		Installing Timing Chains and Gears
		Piston Fitting
		Installing Piston and Rod Assemblies
		Installing the Camshaft for Overhead Cam Engines
		Head Gaskets
		Installing the Head Gasket
		Head Bolt Torque Sequence
		Torque-to-Yield Bolts
		Timing Drives for Overhead Cam Engines
		Lifter and Pushrod Installation
		Hydraulic Lifters
		Solid Lifters
		Assembly Sealants
		Installing Manifolds
		Cover Gasket Materials
		Installing Timing Covers
		Installing the Vibration Damper
		Installing the Oil Pump
		The Oil Pan
		Installing the Water Pump
		Engine Painting
		Checking for Proper Oil Pressure
		Setting Initial Ignition Timing
SECTION VII: Electrical and Electronic Systems
	31 Electrical Fundamentals
		Electricity
		Sources of Electricity
	32 Electrical Circuits and Ohm's Law
		Circuits
		Ohm's Law
		Watt's Law
	33 Series, Parallel, and Series-Parallel Circuits
		Series Circuits
		Ohm's Law and Series Circuits
		Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
		Series Circuit Laws
		Series Circuit Examples
		Parallel Circuits
		Kirchhoff's Current Law
		Parallel Circuit Laws
		Determining Total Resistance in a Parallel Circuit
		Parallel Circuit Examples
		Series-Parallel Circuits
		Solving Series-Parallel Circuit Problems
		Series-Parallel Circuit Examples
	34 Digital Meters and Scope Usage
		Test Lights
		Logic Probe
		Digital Multimeters
		Measuring Amperes
		AC/DC Clamp-On Digital Multimeter
		Measuring Voltage
		Measuring Resistance
		Electrical Unit Prefixes
		How to Read Digital Meters
		Analog versus Digital Storage Oscilloscope
		Oscilloscope Display Grid
		Setting the Time Base
		Setting the Volts Per Division
		DC Coupling
		AC Coupling
		Pulse Trains
		Using Scope Leads
		Measuring Battery Voltage with a Scope
		Graphing Multimeter
	35 Automotive Wiring and Wire Repair
		Automotive Wiring
		Braided Ground Straps
		Battery Cables
		Jumper Cables
		Fuses and Circuit Protection Devices
		Terminals and Connectors
		Wire Repair
	36 Wiring Schematics and Troubleshooting
		Wiring Schematics
		Schematic Symbols
		Relay Terminal Identification
		Common Power or Ground
		Using Schematics for Troubleshooting
		Locating a Short Circuit
		Electrical Troubleshooting Guide
		Step-by-Step Troubleshooting Procedure
	37 Capacitance and Magnetism
		Capacitance
		Capacitor Construction and Operation
		Factors of Capacitance
		Capacitor Uses
		Fundamentals of Magnetism
		Electromagnetism
		Electromagnetic Induction
		Ignition Coils
		Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) Suppression
	38 Electronic Fundamentals
		Semiconductors
		N-Type Material
		P-Type Material
		How Holes Move
		Summary of Semiconductors
		Diodes
		Zener Diodes
		Clamping Diodes
		Zener Diode Despiking Protection
		Despiking Protective Resistors
		Diode Ratings
		Light-Emitting Diodes
		Photodiodes
		Photoresistors
		Varistors
		Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers
		Thermistors
		Rectifier Bridges
		Transistors
		How a Transistor Works
		Integrated Circuits
		Phototransistors
		Solar Cells
		How to Test Diodes and Transistors
		Electronic Component Failure Causes
		Electrostatic Discharge
	39 Batteries and Battery Testing
		Purpose of a Battery
		Battery Construction
		Grids
		How a Battery Works
		Specific Gravity
		Charge Indicators
		Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries
		Battery Hold-Downs
		Battery Ratings
		Deep Cycling
		Battery Service Safety Considerations
		Battery Maintenance
		Battery Voltage Test
		Hydrometer Testing
		Battery Load Testing
		Electronic Conductance Testing
		Battery Charging
		Jump-Starting
		Battery Date Codes
		Battery Electrical Drain Test
		Procedure for Battery Electrical Drain Test
		Finding the Source of the Drain
		What to Do If a Battery Drain Still Exists
		Hidden Batteries
		Battery Symptom Guide
	40 Cranking System Operation and Diagnosis
		Cranking Circuit
		Computer-Controlled Starting
		How the Starter Motor Works
		How Magnetic Fields Turn an Armature
		Types of Starter Motors
		Armature and Commutator Assembly
		Permanent-Magnet Fields
		Gear-Reduction Starters
		Starter Drives
		Starter Drive Operation
		Positive-Engagement Starters
		Solenoid-Operated Starters
		Starting System Troubleshooting
		Voltage-Drop Testing
		Control Circuit Testing
		Specifications for a Starter Amperage Test
		Starter Removal
		Starter Disassembly
		Starter Installation
		Starting System Troubleshooting Guide
	41 Charging System Operation and Diagnosis
		Principles of Generator Operation
		Alternating-Current Generators (Alternators)
		Generator Construction
		Alternator Overrunning Pulley
		Rotors
		Generator Brushes
		Stators
		Diodes
		How a Generator Works
		Wye-Connected Stators
		Delta-Connected Stators
		Generator Output Factors
		Generator Voltage Regulation
		Charging Voltage Control
		Diode Trio Generators
		Electronic Voltage Regulators
		Charging System Testing and Service
		General Motors SI Test Light Test
		General Motors CS Series AC Generators
		Diagnosing Problems with the General Motors CS Series
		Generator Disassembly
		Generator Assembly
		Remanufactured Generators
	42 Lighting and Signaling Circuits
		Lighting
		Bulb Numbers
		Brake Lights
		Headlight Switches
		Sealed-Beam Headlights
		Headlight Aiming
		Composite Headlights
		Halogen Sealed-Beam Headlights
		High-Intensity Discharge Headlights
		Adaptive Front Lighting System
		Daytime Running Lights
		Dimmer Switches
		Stop Lamp and Turn Signals
		Flasher Units
		Lighting Symptom Guide
		Courtesy Lights
		Illuminated Entry
		Fiber Optics
		Feedback
		Lighting System Troubleshooting Guide
	43 Driver Information and Navigation Systems
		Dash Warning Symbols
		Analog Dash Instruments
		Computer-Controlled Instrument Panels
		Stepper Motor Gauges
		Head-Up Display
		Night Vision
		Dash Instrument Diagnosis
		Telltale Lamps
		Oil Pressure Warning Devices
		Temperature Lamp Diagnosis
		Brake Warning Lamp
		Digital Electronic Dash Operation
		Electronic Speedometers
		Electronic Odometers
		Electronic Speedometer and Odometer Service
		Electronic Fuel-Level Gauges
		Navigation and GPS
		Onstar
		Backup Camera
		Backup Sensors
		Lane Departure Warning System
		Electronic Dash Instrument Diagnosis and Troubleshooting
		Maintenance Reminder Lamps
	44 Horn, Wiper, and Blower Motor Circuits
		Horns
		Windshield Wiper and Washer System
		Windshield Wiper Motors
		Rain-Sense Wiper System
		Blower Motor Operation
		Blower Motor Diagnosis
		Electrical Accessory Symptom Guide
	45 Accessory Circuits
		Cruise Control
		Heated Rear-Window Defoggers
		Homelink Garage Door Opener
		Power Windows
		Power Seats
		Memory Seats
		Electrically Heated Seats
		Heated and Cooled Seats
		Heated Steering Wheel
		Adjustable Pedals
		Automatic Dimming Mirrors
		Outside Folding Mirrors
		Electric Power Door Locks
		Keyless Entry
		Anti-Theft Systems
		Electrical Accessory Troubleshooting Guide
	46 Restraint Systems and Airbags
		Safety Belts and Retractors
		Pretensioners
		Airbags
		Airbag Diagnosis Tools and Equipment
		Airbag Testing and Service
		Driver-Side Airbag Module Replacement
		Safety When Manually Deploying Airbags
		Occupant Detection Systems
		Seat and Side-Curtain Airbags
		Event Data Recorders
	47 Audio System Operation and Diagnosis
		Audio Fundamentals
		Radios and Receivers
		Antenna Diagnosis
		Speakers
		Speaker Types
		Crossovers
		Voice Recognition
		Bluetooth
		Satellite Radio
		Radio Interference
SECTION VIII: Heating and Air Conditioning
	48 Heating and Air-Conditioning Components and Operation
		Principles of Heating and Refrigeration
		Heating System
		Air-Conditioning Refrigeration Cycle
		Expansion Valve Systems
		Orifice Tube Systems
		Thermostatic Control
		Refrigerants
		Refrigerants and the Environment
		Refrigerant Oils
		Condenser
		Evaporator
		Receiver-Drier
		Accumulator
		Refrigerant Lines and Hoses
		Thermostatic Expansion Valves
		Fixed-Orifice Tubes
		Compressors
		Compressor Controls
	49 Automatic Air-Conditioning System Operation
		Airflow Management
		Automatic Air Conditioning
		Actuators
		Cabin Filters
		Vacuum Control Circuits
		Electric Servomotor Circuits
		Blower Motor Control
		Dual-Zone Air Climate Controls
		Rear Air-Conditioning System
		Recirculation Operation
		Hybrid Electric Vehicle Heating and Cooling Systems
	50 Heating and Air-Conditioning System Diagnosis
		Hvac Diagnostic Procedure
		Heater Diagnosis
		Heater Problem Diagnosis
		Heater Trouble Diagnosis
		Checking A/C System Performance
		Temperature and Pressure Measurements
	51 Heating and Air-Conditioning System Service
		Blower Motor Service
		Cooling System Service
		Refrigerant Recovery Procedures
		Evacuation Procedures
		Noncondensable Gases
		Refrigerant Recycling
		Recharging a System
		Retrofitting a CFC-12 System to a HFC-134A System
		Compressor Service
		Condenser Service
		Evaporator Service
		Receiver/Drier or Accumulator/Drier Service
		Orifice Tube/Expansion Valve Service
SECTION IX: Engine Performance
	52 Gasoline and Alternative Fuels
		Automotive Fuel Refining
		Gasoline
		Volatility
		Distillation Curve
		Normal and Abnormal Combustion
		Octane Rating
		Gasoline Grades and Octane Number
		Octane Improvers
		Oxygenated Fuels
		Alcohol Additives—Advantages and Disadvantages
		Testing Gasoline for Alcohol Content
		Combustion Chemistry
		Air–Fuel Ratios
		High-Altitude Octane Requirements
		Reformulated Gasoline
		General Gasoline Recommendations
		Alternative Fuels
		P-Series Fuels
		Biodiesel
		E-Diesel Fuel
		Synthetic Fuels
		Safety Procedures When Working with Alternative Fuel Vehicles
	53 Computer and Network Fundamentals
		Computer Control
		The Four Basic Computer Functions
		Digital Computers
		Computer Input Sensors
		Computer Outputs
		Module Communication and Networks
		SAE Communication Classifications
		Module Communication Diagnosis
		OBD II Data Link Connector
	54 Onboard Diagnosis
		On-Board Diagnostics Generation-II (OBD-II) Systems
		Diagnostic Executive and Task Manager
		Monitors
		OBD-II Monitor Information
		Enabling Criteria
		OBD-II DTC Numbering Designation
		Diagnostic Trouble Code Priority
		Enabling Conditions or Criteria
		Generic OBD II
		Diagnosing Problems Using Mode Six
	55 Computer Sensors
		Engine Coolant Temperature Sensors
		Stepped ECT Circuits
		Testing the Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor
		Intake Air Temperature Sensor
		Testing the Intake Air Temperature Sensor
		Transmission Fluid Temperature Sensor
		Temperature Sensor Diagnostic Trouble Codes
		Throttle Position Sensors
		TP Sensor Computer Input Functions
		PCM Uses for the TP Sensor
		Testing the Throttle Position Sensor
		Testing a TP Sensor Using the Min/Max Function
		Testing the TP Sensor Using a Scan Tool
		TP Sensor Diagnostic Trouble Codes
		MAP/BARO Sensors
		Principles of Pressure Sensors
		Construction of Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensors
		PCM Uses of the MAP Sensor
		Barometric Pressure Sensor
		Testing the MAP Sensor
		Fuel-Rail Pressure Sensor
		MAP/BARO Diagnostic Trouble Codes
		Airflow Sensors
		Analog and Digital MAF Sensors
		Mass Airflow Sensor Types
		Karman Vortex Sensors
		PCM Uses for Airflow Sensors
		Testing Mass Airflow Sensors
		MAF-Related Diagnostic Trouble Codes
		Oxygen Sensors
		Closed Loop and Open Loop
		PCM Uses of the Oxygen Sensor
		Testing an Oxygen Sensor Using a Digital Voltmeter
		Testing the Oxygen Sensor Using the MIN/MAX Method
		Testing an Oxygen Sensor Using a Scan Tool
		Testing an Oxygen Sensor Using a Scope
		O2S Readings
		Post-Catalytic Converter Oxygen Sensor Testing
		Oxygen Sensor Inspection
		Oxygen Sensor-Related Diagnostic Trouble Codes
	56 Ignition System Components and Operation
		Ignition System Operation
		Ignition Coils
		Ignition Switching and Triggering
		Primary Circuit Operation
		Distributor Ignition
		Waste-Spark Ignition Systems
		Ignition Control Circuits
		Bypass Ignition Control
		Compression-Sensing Ignition
		Coil-On-Plug Ignition
		Ion-Sensing Ignition
		Ignition Timing
		Initial Timing
		Knock Sensors
		Spark Plugs
	57 Ignition System Diagnosis and Service
		Checking for Spark
		Electronic Ignition Troubleshooting Procedure
		Ignition Coil Testing Using an Ohmmeter
		Pickup Coil Testing
		Testing Magnetic Sensors
		Testing Hall-Effect Sensors
		Testing Optical Sensors
		Ignition System Diagnosis Using Visual Inspection
		Testing for Poor Performance
		Testing for a No-Start Condition
		Ignition System Service
		Firing Order
		Secondary Ignition Inspection
		Spark Plug Wire Inspection
		Spark Plug Service
		Quick and Easy Secondary Ignition Tests
		Ignition Timing
		Scope-Testing the Ignition System
		Scope-Testing a Waste-Spark Ignition System
		Scope-Testing a Coil-on-Plug Ignition System
		Ignition System Troubleshooting Guide
	58 Fuel Pumps, Lines, and Filters
		Fuel Delivery System
		Fuel Tanks
		Fuel Lines
		Electric Fuel Pumps
		Fuel Filters
		Fuel-Pump Testing
		Fuel-Pump Current Draw Test
		Fuel-Pump Replacement
	59 Fuel-Injection Components and Operation
		Electronic Fuel-Injection Operation
		Speed-Density Fuel-Injection Systems
		Mass Airflow Fuel-Injection Systems
		Throttle-Body Injection
		Port Fuel Injection
		Direct Fuel Injection
		Fuel-Pressure Regulator
		Vacuum-Biased Fuel-Pressure Regulator
		Electronic Returnless Fuel System
		Mechanical Returnless Fuel System
		Demand Delivery System (DDS)
		Fuel Injectors
		Central Port Injection
		Fuel-Injection Modes of Operation
		Idle Control
		Stepper Motor Operation
		Electronic Throttle Control
	60 Fuel-Injection System Diagnosis and Service
		Port Fuel-Injection Pressure Regulator Diagnosis
		Diagnosing Electronic Fuel-Injection Problems Using Visual Inspection
		Scan Tool Vacuum Leak Diagnosis
		Port Fuel-Injection System Diagnosis
		Testing for an Injector Pulse
		Checking Fuel-Injector Resistance
		Measuring Resistance of Grouped Injectors
		Measuring Resistance of Individual Injectors
		Pressure-Drop Balance Test
		Injector Voltage-Drop Tests
		Scope-Testing Fuel Injectors
		Idle Air Speed Control Diagnosis
		Fuel-Injection Service
		Fuel-System Scan Tool Diagnostics
	61 Vehicle Emission Standards and Testing
		Emission Standards in the United States
		European Standards
		Exhaust Analysis Testing
		Exhaust Analysis and Combustion Efficiency
		HC Too High
		CO Too High
		Measuring Oxygen (O[sub(2)]) and Carbon Dioxide (CO[sub(2)])
		Photochemical Smog Formation
		Testing for Oxides of Nitrogen
	62 Emission Control Devices Operation and Diagnosis
		Smog
		Exhaust Gas Recirculation Systems
		OBD-II: EGR Monitoring Strategies
		Diagnosing a Defective EGR System
		Crankcase Ventilation
		PCV Valves
		Orifice-Controlled Systems
		PCV System Diagnosis
		PCV Monitor
		Air Pump System
		Air Distribution Manifolds and Nozzles
		Secondary Air Injection System Diagnosis
		Catalytic Converters
		Ceramic Monolith Catalytic Converter
		OBD-II Catalytic Converter Performance
		Converter-Damaging Conditions
		Diagnosing Catalytic Converters
		Testing a Catalytic Converter for Temperature Rise
		OBD-II Catalytic Converter Monitor
		Catalytic Converter Replacement Guidelines
		Evaporative Emission Control System
		How the Evaporative Control System Works
		Nonenhanced Evaporative Control Systems
		Enhanced Evaporative Control System
		Leak Detection Pump System
		Onboard Refueling Vapor Recovery
		State Inspection EVAP Tests
		Diagnosing the EVAP System
		Locating Leaks in the System
		Evaporative System Monitor
		Typical EVAP Monitor
	63 Scan Tools and Engine Performance Diagnosis
		The Eight-Step Diagnostic Procedure
		Scan Tools
		Retrieval of Diagnostic Information
		Troubleshooting Using Diagnostic Trouble Codes
		Flash Code Retrieval on OBD-I General Motors Vehicles
		Retrieving Ford Diagnostic Codes
		Flash Code Retrieval on Chrysler Vehicles
		OBD-II Diagnosis
		OBD-II Active Tests
		Service/Flash Programming
		J2534 Reprogramming
		Manufacturer's Diagnostic Routines
		Completing System Repairs
		Procedures for Resetting the PCM
		Road Test (Drive Trace)
SECTION X: Hybrid and Fuel Cell Vehicles
	64 Introduction to Hybrid Vehicles
		Hybrid Vehicle
		Driving and Owning a Hybrid Electric Vehicle
		Classifications of Hybrid-Electric Vehicles
		Belt Alternator Starter Systems
		Levels of Hybrid Vehicles
	65 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Safety Procedures
		High-Voltage Safety Equipment
		First Responder Procedures XI
		Electric Shock Potential
		Vehicle Fire
		Submerged or Partially Submerged Vehicle
		Preventing Current Flow Through High-Voltage Cables
		Emergency Response
		Collision and Repair Industry Issues
		Moving and Towing a Hybrid
		Insulation Tester
	66 Fuel Cells and Advanced Technologies
		Fuel-Cell Technology
		Pem Fuel Cells
		Fuel-Cell Vehicle Systems
		Hydraulic Hybrid Storage System
		HCCI
		Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles
		The Future for Electric Vehicles
		Wind Power
		Hydroelectric Power
SECTION XI: Brakes
	67 Braking System Components and Performance Standards
		How Brakes Stop Vehicles
		Drum Brakes
		Disc Brakes
		Brake Design Requirements
		Brake System Categories
		Antilock Brake System Operation
		Federal Brake Standards
		Brake Repair and the Law
	68 Braking System Principles
		Energy Principles
		Kinetic Energy
		Inertia
		Mechanical Principles
		Friction Principles
		Friction and Heat
		Heat-Caused Brake Fade
		Water-Caused Brake Fade
		Deceleration Rates
	69 Brake Hydraulic Systems
		Hydraulic Principles
		Noncompressibility of Liquids
		Pascal's Law
		Master Cylinders
		Master Cylinder Operation
		Dual Split Master Cylinders
		Diagonal Split Master Cylinders
		Quick Take-up Master Cylinders
		Diagnosing and Troubleshooting Master Cylinders
		Disassembly of the Master Cylinder
		Inspection and Reassembly of the Master Cylinder
		Installing the Master Cylinder
	70 Hydraulic Valves and Switches
		Residual Check Valve
		Pressure-Differential Switch (Brake Warning Switch)
		Brake Fluid Level Sensor Switch
		Diagnosing a Red "Brake" Dash Warning Lamp
		Proportioning Valve
		Height-Sensing Proportioning Valves
		Proportioning Valve Adjustment
		Proportioning Valve Diagnosis and Testing
		Electronic Brake Proportioning
		Metering Valve (Hold-Off) Operation
		Systems Without Metering Valves
		Metering Valve Diagnosis and Testing
		Combination Valve
		Brake Light Switch
	71 Brake Fluid and Lines
		Brake Fluid
		Brake Fluid Types
		Brake Fluid Specifications
		Hydraulic System Mineral Oil
		Brake Fluid Inspection and Testing
		Brake Fluid Service Procedures and Precautions
		Brake Fluid Handling and Disposal
		Rubber Types
		Brake Lines
		Coiled Brake Line
		Armored Brake Line
		Flexible Brake Hose
	72 Brake Bleeding Methods and Procedures
		Brake Bleeding
		Bleeding the Master Cylinder
		Brake Bleeder Valve Loosening Methods
		Bleeding Sequence
		Manual Bleeding
		Vacuum Bleeding
		Gravity Bleeding
		Pressure Bleeding
		Metering Valve Override Tools
		Pressure Bleeding Procedure
		Surge Bleeding
		Fluid Changing
	73 Wheel Bearings and Service
		Antifriction Bearings
		Bearing Greases
		Seals
		Symptoms and Diagnosis of Defective Bearings
		Non-Drive-Wheel Bearing Inspection and Service
		Sealed Bearing Replacement
		Rear-Drive-Axle Classifications
		Rear Axle Bearing and Seal Replacement
		Bearing Failure Analysis
	74 Drum Brake Parts and Operations
		Drum Brake Advantages
		Drum Brake Disadvantages
		Drum Brake Parts
		Drum Brake Shoes
		Lining Edge Codes
		Drum Brake Design
		Non-Servo Brakes
		Automatic Brake Adjusters
	75 Drum Brake Diagnosis and Service
		Drum Brake Diagnostic Procedure
		Brake Drum Removal
		Drum Brake Disassembly
		Inspecting the Backing Plate
		Drum Brake Lining Inspection
		Spring Inspection
		Wheel Cylinders
		Drum Brake Hardware Kit
		Inspecting the Drum Brake Shoes
		Reassembling the Drum Brake
		Adjusting Drum Brakes
		Lubrication Checklist
		Symptom-Based Troubleshooting Guide
	76 Disc Brake Parts and Operation
		Disc Brakes
		Disc Brake Advantages
		Disc Brake Disadvantages
		Disc Brake Construction
		Disc Brake Pads
		Semimetallic Friction Material
		Lining Edge Codes
		Brake Rotors
		Disc Brake Design
		Rear Disc Brakes
	77 Disc Brake Diagnosis and Service
		Disc Brake Diagnostic Procedure
		Visual Inspection
		Disc Brake Caliper Service
		Reassembling Disc Brake Calipers
		Rotating Pistons Back Into the Caliper
		Disc Brake Squeal
		Disc Brake Symptom Guide
	78 Parking Brake Operation, Diagnosis, and Service
		Parking Brake
		Pedals, Levers, and Handles
		Parking Brake Warning Lamp
		Parking Brake Linkages
		Front and Rear Entry Parking Brake Cables
		Drum Parking Brakes
		Caliper-Actuated Disc Parking Brakes
		Parking Brake Cable Adjustment
	79 Machining Brake Drums and Rotors
		Brake Drums
		Brake Drum and Rotor Damage
		Brake Drum Distortion
		Removing Drums
		"Machine to" versus "Discard"
		Reasons for Equal Drum Inside Diameter
		Measuring and Machining Brake Drums
		Disc Brake Rotors
		Aluminum Metal Matrix Composite Rotors
		Minimum Thickness
		When the Rotors Should Be Machined
		Rotor Finish
		Positive Rake Versus Negative Rake Brake Lathes
		Machining a Disc Brake Rotor
		Rough Cut
		Finish Cut
		On-the-Vehicle Rotor Machining
	80 Power Brake Unit Operation, Diagnosis, and Service
		The Need for Power Brake Assist
		Principles of Vacuum
		Vacuum Booster Theory
		Charcoal Filter
		Vacuum Check Valve
		Vacuum Brake Booster Operation
		Dual- (Tandem-) Diaphragm Vacuum Boosters
		Brake Assist System
		Vacuum Booster Operation Test
		Vacuum Booster Leak Test
		Hydraulic System Leak Test
		Pushrod Clearance Adjustment
		Vacuum Booster Disassembly and Service
		Hydro-Boost Hydraulic Brake Booster
		Hydro-Boost Function Test
		Hydro-Boost Symptom-Based Guide
	81 ABS Components and Operation
		ABS Characteristics
		ABS Operation
		System Configurations
		ABS Components
		Brake Pedal Feedback
		Brake Pedal Travel Switch (Sensor)
		Traction Control
		Electronic Controller Operation
		Electronic Stability Control
	82 ABS Diagnosis and Service
		ABS Diagnostic Procedure
		Brake Warning Lamp Operation
		Thorough Visual Inspection
		Test-Drive and Verify the Fault
		Retrieving Diagnostic Trouble Codes
		Kelsey-Hayes Antilock (Nonintegral)
		Bosch 2 ABS (Nonintegral)
		Teves Mark IV
		Delphi (Delco) ABS VI (Nonintegral)
		Wheel Speed Sensor Diagnosis
		Wheel Speed Sensor Adjustment
		Hydraulic ABS Service
		ABS Safety Precautions
SECTION XII: Suspension and Steering
	83 Tires and Wheels
		Parts of a Tire
		Tire Molding
		Metric Designation
		Service Description
		High-Flotation Tire Sizes
		Load Index and Equivalent Loads
		Speed Ratings
		Tire Pressure and Traction
		Tire Conicity and Ply Steer
		Vehicle Handling and Tire Slip Angle
		Rim Width and Tire Size
		Uniform Tire Quality Grading System
		All-Season Tire Designation
		Dot Tire Code
		Spare Tires
		Run-Flat Tires
		General Motors TPC Rating
		Tire-Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS)
		TPMS Sensors
		Tire Selection Considerations
		Wheels
		Tire Valves
		Unsprung Weight
		Lug Nuts
	84 Tire and Wheel Service
		Tire Inflation
		Nitrogen Inflation
		Tire Mounting Recommendations
		Wheel Mounting Torque
		Tire Rotation
		Tire Inspection
		Radial Runout
		Lateral Runout
		Tire Balancing
		Replacement Wheels
		Tire Repair
	85 Suspension System Components and Operation
		Frame Construction
		Platforms
		Unsprung Weight
		Types of Suspensions
		Hooke's Law
		Coil Springs
		Leaf Springs
		Torsion Bars
		Suspension Principles
		Steering Knuckles
		Control Arms
		Ball Joints
		Strut Rods
		Stabilizer Bars
		Shock Absorbers
		Struts
		Bump Stops
	86 Front Suspension and Service
		Front Suspension Types
		Short/Long-Arm Suspensions
		Strut Suspension
		Servicing the Suspension System
		Road Test Diagnosis
		Dry Park Test (Suspension)
		Visual Inspection
		Ball Joints
		Kingpin Diagnosis and Service
		Shock Absorbers and Struts
		MacPherson Strut Replacement
		Stabilizer Bar Link and Bushings
		Strut Rod Bushings
		Front Coil Springs
		Steering Knuckles
		Torsion Bars
		Control Arm Bushings
	87 Rear Suspension and Service
		Solid Rear Axles
		Leaf Spring Rear Suspensions
		Trailing Arm Rear Suspensions
		Semi-Trailing Arm Rear Suspensions
		Independent Rear Suspensions
		Semi-Independent Rear Suspensions
		Rear Suspension Service
		Rear Shock Replacement
		Troubleshooting Rear Electronic Leveling Systems
	88 Electronic Suspension Systems
		Electronic Controls and Sensors
		Electronic Suspension System Actuators
		Types of Electronic Suspension
		Automatic Level Control (ALC)
		Magneto-Rheological (MR) Suspension
	89 Steering Columns and Gears
		Steering Wheels
		Steering Columns
		Conventional Steering Gears
		Recirculating Ball Steering Gear
		Steering Gear Adjustments
		Rack-and-Pinion Steering Gear
		Rack-and-Pinion Adjustments
	90 Steering Linkage and Service
		Steering Linkage
		Rack-and-Pinion Inner Tie Rod Ends
		Four-Wheel Steering
		Steering Linkage Lubrication
		Dry Park Test
		Common Wear Items
		Under-Vehicle Inspection
		Steering Linkage Replacement
	91 Power-Assisted Steering Operation and Service
		Power Steering Hydraulic Systems
		Power Steering Pump and Reservoir
		Power Steering Hoses
		Integral Power Steering
		Variable-Effort Steering
		Electric Power Steering System
		Self-Parking System
		ElectroHydraulic Power Steering
		Power Steering Diagnosis and Troubleshooting
	92 Wheel Alignment Principles
		Alignment-Related Problems
		Caster
		Toe
		Steering Axis Inclination (SAI)
		Included Angle
		Scrub Radius
		Turning Radius (Toe-Out on Turns)
		Setback
		Thrust Angle
		Tracking
		Four-Wheel Alignment
	93 Alignment Diagnosis and Service
		Prealignment Correction Techniques
		Prealignment Checks
		Lead/Pull
		Memory Steer
		Torque Steer
		Alignment Specifications
		Alignment Setup Procedures
		Measuring Camber, Caster, SAI, Toe, and TOOT
		Specifications Versus Alignment Readings
		Checking for Bent Struts, Spindles, or Control Arms
		Checking Frame Alignment of Front-Wheel-Drive Vehicles
		Types of Alignments
		Sample Alignment Specifications and Readings
		Adjusting Rear Camber
		Guidelines for Adjusting Front Camber/SAI and Included Angle
		Front Camber/Caster Adjustment Methods
		Adjusting Front Camber/Caster
		Setting Toe
		Centering the Steering Wheel
		Steering Wheel Removal
		Tolerance Adjustment Procedure
		Aftermarket Alignment Methods
		Aligning Electronic-Suspension Vehicles
		Aligning Modified Vehicles
		Hidden Structural Damage Diagnosis
		Alignment Troubleshooting
SECTION XIII: Manual Drivetrain and Axles
	94 Clutches
		Purpose and Function of a Clutch
		Component Parts and Operation of a Clutch Assembly
		Clutch Problem Diagnosis
		Clutch Replacement
		Clutch Pedal Adjustment
		Bleeding the Hydraulic Clutch
		Clutch Symptom Guide
	95 Manual Transmissions/Transaxles
		The Need for a Transmission
		Gear Types
		Gear Ratios
		Torque, Speed, and Power
		Power Train Gear Ratios
		Transmission Construction
		Torque Flow Through a Manual Transmission
		Speed Gears
		Synchronizer Parts and Operation
		Five-Speed Gearbox Torque Flow
		Manual Transaxle Construction
		Transmission/Transaxle Removal
		Transmission/Transaxle Disassembly
		Hard-to-Shift Problem Diagnosis
		Manual Transmission Installation
		Gear Lubrication
	96 Drive Axle Shafts and CV Joints
		Driveshaft Design
		Driveshaft Balance
		U-Joint Design and Operation
		Constant Velocity Joints
	97 Drive Axle Shaft and CV Joint Service
		Driveshaft and U-Joint Inspection
		U-Joint Replacement
		U-Joint Working Angles
		CV Joint Diagnosis
		Replacement Shaft Assemblies
		CV Joint Service
	98 Differentials
		Purpose and Function of a Differential
		Parts of a Differential
		Differential Gear Ratios
		Differentials
		Ball Bearings/Rear Axles
		Straight Roller Bearings/Rear Axles
		Tapered Roller Bearings/Rear Axles
		Differential Identification
		Determining the Axle Ratio of a Differential
		Rear End Noise Diagnosis
		Differential Inspection
		Tooth Contact Pattern Test
		Differential Disassembly
		Pinion Shaft Bearing Replacement
		Drive Pinion Depth
		Pinion Gear Preload
		Checking and Correcting Backlash
		Setting Side Bearing Preload
		Reassembly of the Differential Assembly
		Differential Lubricant
	99 Four-Wheel Drive and All-Wheel Drive
		Four-Wheel-Drive Systems
		All-Wheel Drive
		Front and Rear Differential Axle Ratios
		Transfer Case
		Interaxle Differential
		Four-Wheel-Drive Axles
		Transfer Case Service and Problem Diagnosis
		Diagnosing and Servicing Locking Hubs
		Transfer Case Service
SECTION XIV: Automatic Transmission and Transaxles
	100 Automatic Transmission/Transaxle Principles
		Torque Converters
		Planetary Gear Sets
		Simpson Gear Set
		Ravigneaux Gear Set
		Lapelleties Gear Set
		Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT)
	101 Hydraulic Components and Control Systems
		Apply Devices
		Hydraulic Servos
		Accumulators
		Multiple-Disc Clutchs
		One-Way Clutches
		Pump
		Typical Torque Flow
	102 Automatic Transmission/Transaxle Diagnosis and In-Vehicle Service
		Preliminary Automatic Transmission/Transaxle Problem Diagnosis
	103 Automatic Transmission/Transaxle Unit Repair
		Removing the Automatic Transmission/Transaxle for Service
		Automatic Transmission/Transaxle Disassembly
		Reassembling an Automatic Transmission/Transaxle
		Reinstalling the Automatic Transmission/Transaxle
		Road Test
Appendix 1 ASE Correlation Chart
Appendix 2 NATEF Task List
English Glossary
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Index
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