Athena Unbound: The Advancement of Women in Science and Technology

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Dedication......Page 4
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
Acknowledgements......Page 8
Introduction Women in science: Why so few?......Page 9
A LIFE COURSE ANALYSIS OF WOMEN IN SCIENCE......Page 10
1 The science career pipeline......Page 13
THE U.S. EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM......Page 14
THE LOSS OF WOMEN TO SCIENCE......Page 18
THE FALLACY OF THE ‘SUPPLY SIDE’......Page 20
Role models......Page 21
2 Women and science: Athena Bound......Page 23
SCIENTIFIC HEROINES......Page 25
UNSUNG HEROINES AND INVISIBLE BATTLES......Page 30
OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO WOMEN IN SCIENCE......Page 32
THE CONFLICT BETWEEN THE PERSONAL AND THE PROFESSIONAL......Page 34
3 Gender, sex and science......Page 39
GENDERED CHOICES......Page 40
VERY YOUNG CHILDREN’S CONCEPT OF THE SCIENTIST......Page 41
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE EARLY YEARS......Page 45
STEREOTYPING OF SCIENCE IN THE PRIMARY SCHOOL YEARS......Page 46
DISCOURAGEMENT OF GIRL'S INTEREST IN SCIENCE DURING ADOLESCENCE......Page 50
FORECLOSING WOMEN’S CHOICE TO DO SCIENCE......Page 55
The weed-out system......Page 57
GENDER SOCIALIZATION AND UNDERGRADUATE SCIENCE EDUCATION......Page 61
BEATING THE SYSTEM OR BEING BEATEN BY IT......Page 67
UNDERGRADUATE SCHOOLS THAT PROMOTE WOMEN’S INTEREST IN SCIENCE......Page 71
CHANGING THE WEED-OUT SYSTEM......Page 73
5 Critical transitions in the graduate and post-graduate career path......Page 77
THE U.S. GRADUATE EDUCATION MODEL......Page 78
THE ILLUSION OF MALE AUTONOMY......Page 80
THE UNOFFICIAL PH.D. PROGRAM......Page 81
EXCLUSION FROM STUDY GROUPS......Page 82
QUALIFYING EXAMINATIONS......Page 83
FINDING AN ADVISOR......Page 85
6 Women’s (and men’s) graduate experience in science......Page 91
NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES OF ACADEMIC CULTURE FOR WOMEN......Page 92
LIFE-COURSE EVENTS......Page 95
MARRIAGE AND FAMILY......Page 96
THE ACCUMULATION OF DISADVANTAGE......Page 99
INFORMAL TRANSITIONS: THE ROLE OF CONFERENCES......Page 103
FINISHING THE PROGRAM......Page 105
POST-DOCTORAL FELLOWS......Page 106
OVERCOMING THE EFFECTS OF ISOLATION......Page 108
WOMEN’S (AND MEN’S) GRADUATE EXPERIENCE: A SUMMARY......Page 109
7 The paradox of critical mass for women in science......Page 113
ALTERNATIVE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES......Page 117
IS CRITICAL MASS SUFFICIENT?......Page 118
THE EMERGENCE OF FEMALE-GENDERED SUBFIELDS......Page 120
8 The ‘kula ring’ of scientific success......Page 123
SOCIAL AND OTHER CAPITALS: DEFINING OUR TERMS......Page 125
THE NEW ORDER OF SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTION......Page 126
THE MOBILIZATION OF SOCIAL CAPITAL IN SCIENTIFIC CAREERS......Page 129
SOCIAL CAPITAL, DNA, AND GENDER......Page 132
RAISING SOCIAL CAPITAL......Page 136
9 Women’s faculty experience......Page 139
THE JOB SEARCH......Page 141
GEOGRAPHICAL MOBILITY BARRIERS......Page 143
10 Dual male and female worlds of science......Page 145
TENURE......Page 149
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE......Page 150
TENURE STRESS......Page 153
11 Differences between women in science......Page 155
THE CONTRADICTIONS OF BEING AN ADVISOR......Page 156
THE INSTRUMENTAL STYLE......Page 160
THE RELATIONAL STYLE......Page 161
SUMMARY......Page 163
12 Social capital and faculty network relationships......Page 165
SOCIAL CAPITAL AND DEPARTMENTAL RELATIONSHIPS......Page 166
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN QUALITY OF DEPARTMENT RELATIONSHIPS......Page 168
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN DEPARTMENT NETWORKS......Page 172
GENDER DIFFERENCES IN INTERDEPARTMENTAL NETWORKS......Page 174
PATTERNS OF MEN’S AND WOMEN’S INTERDEPARTMENTAL TIES......Page 178
ARE GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SOCIAL CAPITAL EXPLAINED BY DIFFERENCES IN OUR HUMAN CAPITAL?......Page 179
SOCIAL CAPITAL AND RESEARCH PRODUCTIVITY......Page 181
SUMMARY......Page 185
THE INSTRUMENTAL DEPARTMENT......Page 187
THE RELATIONAL DEPARTMENT......Page 189
Instrumental advisor/relational department......Page 192
Instrumental advisor/instrumental department......Page 193
TYPES OF PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN IN SCIENCE......Page 195
BOTTOM UP PROGRAMS......Page 197
TOP DOWN PROGRAMS......Page 201
IDIOSYNCRATIC PROGRAMS......Page 205
STRATEGY FOR DEPARTMENTAL REFORM......Page 207
CONCLUSION: INTERACTIONS AMONG PROGRAM TYPES AND DEPARTMENT CHANGE......Page 208
15 International comparisons......Page 211
WOMEN SCIENTISTS IN DEVELOPING AND SEMI-INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES......Page 212
Turkey: Class is stronger than gender......Page 213
Brazil: The significance of traditional gender roles......Page 214
Mexico: The effects of gender socialization......Page 215
Portugal: The loss of males......Page 216
Greece: Traditional gender roles......Page 217
GENDER DYNAMICS IN HIGHLY INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES: THE EUROPEAN EXPERIENCE......Page 219
Austria......Page 220
Finland: A ‘motherhood myth’......Page 221
Italy: Persisting marginality......Page 222
The Netherlands: A continuing dilemma......Page 223
Israel: A few women at the pinnacle......Page 224
Denmark: The difficulties of balancing......Page 225
WOMEN IN SCIENCE IN SOCIALIST COUNTRIES......Page 226
MOVEMENT TOWARD CHANGE......Page 228
THE U.K. EXPERIENCE......Page 229
16 Athena Unbound: Policy for women in science......Page 233
A MORAL AND LEGAL IMPERATIVE......Page 234
THE EFFECTS OF SHORTAGE......Page 237
ECONOMIC COMPETITIVENESS......Page 239
GENERATIONAL CHANGE......Page 241
RESISTANCE TO CHANGE......Page 244
MARGINAL DISADVANTAGES......Page 245
CONCLUSION: SCIENCE POLICY FOR WOMEN IN SCIENCE......Page 249
BEYOND POLICY INTERVENTIONS......Page 255
SURVEY METHODOLOGY......Page 259
REGRESSION ANALYSIS......Page 260
DEPENDENT VARIABLE......Page 261
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES......Page 262
CONTROL VARIABLES......Page 263
Bibliography......Page 265
Index......Page 277