Aquaculture : farming aquatic animals and plants

Title Page
Copyright Page
Contents
List of Contributors
Preface to the Third Edition
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1 Introduction
	1.1 What is and What isn’t Aquaculture?
	1.2 Origins of Aquaculture and Agriculture
	1.3 Aquaculture and Capture Fisheries Production
	1.4 The Efficiency of Aquaculture for Food Production
	1.5 Has There Been a ‘Blue’ Revolution?
	1.6 The Big Producers
	1.7 China
	1.8 Issues for Developed Countries
	1.9 An Allegory
	1.10 Diversity of Aquaculture
	1.11 Fishery Stock Enhancement and Restoration
	1.12 Summary
	References
Chapter 2 Principles of Aquaculture
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Intensity of Aquaculture
		2.2.1 Natural Aquatic Ecosystems
		2.2.2 Intensive Aquaculture Systems
		2.2.3 Extensive Aquaculture Systems
		2.2.4 Semi‐Intensive Aquaculture Systems
	2.3 Polyculture
	2.4 Integrated Agri‐Aquaculture Systems
	2.5 Static, Open, Semi‐Closed and Recirculating (Closed) Systems
		2.5.1 Static Systems
		2.5.2 Open Systems
		2.5.3 Semi‐Closed Systems
		2.5.4 Recirculating (Closed) Systems
	2.6 Selecting a New Species for Farming
		2.6.1 Selecting an Appropriate Species
		2.6.2 Requirements for a Suitable Farmed Species
		2.6.3 Compromise
	2.7 Developing a New Farm or a New Farmed Species
		2.7.1 Rapid Development
		2.7.2 More Technically‐Demanding Development
	2.8 Case Studies
		2.8.1 Case Study 1: Spiny Lobsters
		2.8.2 Case Study 2: Southern Bluefin Tuna
		2.8.3 Case Study 3: Cultured ‘Black’ Pearls
	2.9 Summary
	References
Chapter 3 Aquaculture Systems Design
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Site Selection and Development
		3.2.1 Water Flows
		3.2.2 Use of Existing Topography: Water Head/Pump Capacity
		3.2.3 Utilisation of Land and/or Water
		3.2.4 Minimising Construction Costs
	3.3 Aquaculture Systems
		3.3.1 Ponds
		3.3.2 Water Supply (Inlets) and Drainage System (Outlets)
		3.3.3 Cages
		3.3.4 Pens
		3.3.5 Substrates, Racks and Suspended Culture
		3.3.6 Tanks and Raceways
		3.3.7 Recirculating System Design
	3.4 Plumbing and Pumps
		3.4.1 Pipes
		3.4.2 Two Common Problems in Plumbing Design
		3.4.3 Open Channel Design
		3.4.4 Pumps
		3.4.5 Pump Selection
	3.5 Hatchery Systems
		3.5.1 Water Treatment in Hatcheries
		3.5.2 General Layout of Hatcheries
	3.6 Summary
	References
Chapter 4 Water Quality
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Water Quality Variables
		4.2.1 Solids
		4.2.2 Specific Conductance
		4.2.3 Major Ions
		4.2.4 Minor Inorganic Constituents
		4.2.5 Dissolved Organic Matter
		4.2.6 Particulate Matter
		4.2.7 Dissolved Gases
		4.2.8 Water Temperature and Light
		4.2.9 pH
		4.2.10 Carbon Dioxide, Bicarbonate and Carbonate
		4.2.11 Total Alkalinity and Total Hardness
		4.2.12 Nutrients
		4.2.13 Microorganisms and Water Quality
		4.2.14 Bottom Soils and Water Quality
		4.2.15 Feeding and Water Quality
	4.3 Effects of Water Quality on Aquatic Animals
		4.3.1 Water Temperature
		4.3.2 Salinity
		4.3.3 pH
		4.3.4 Dissolved Oxygen
		4.3.5 Carbon Dioxide
		4.3.6 Gas Supersaturation
		4.3.7 Ammonia and Nitrite
		4.3.8 Hydrogen Sulphide
		4.3.9 Total Alkalinity and Total Hardness
	4.4 Pond Water‐Quality Management
		4.4.1 Liming of Acidic, Low‐Alkalinity Pond Waters
		4.4.2 Pond Fertilisation
		4.4.3 Mechanical Aeration and Mixing
		4.4.4 Ammonia Management
		4.4.5 Control of High pH
		4.4.6 Managing Gas Supersaturation
		4.4.7 Clearing Pond Waters of Clay Turbidity
		4.4.8 Aquatic Weed and Phytoplankton Control
		4.4.9 Mineral Amendments
		4.4.10 Bacterial and Enzyme Products
		4.4.11 Water‐Quality Management in Cages, Raceways and Recirculating Systems
	4.5 Effluents
	4.6 Summary
	References
Chapter 5 Resource Use and the Environment
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 An Overview of Resource Use and Environmental Issues
	5.3 Land Use
	5.4 Water Use
	5.5 Energy Use
	5.6 Feed‐Fish Use
	5.7 Chemicals
	5.8 Water Pollution
	5.9 Best Management Practices
	5.10 Environmental Advocacy in Aquaculture
	5.11 Summary
	References
Chapter 6 Reproduction, Life Cycles and Growth
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Reproductive Physiology
		6.2.1 Fishes
		6.2.2 Decapod Crustaceans
		6.2.3 Bivalve Molluscs
	6.3 Life Cycles
		6.3.1 Sequence of Stages
		6.3.2 Broodstock Selection and Conditioning
		6.3.3 Spawning
		6.3.4 Egg Fertilisation
		6.3.5 Larval Rearing
		6.3.6 Postlarval and Juvenile Rearing
		6.3.7 Grow‐out Rearing
		6.3.8 Other Considerations
	6.4 Growth
		6.4.1 Size vs. Age
		6.4.2 Growth in Decapod Crustaceans
		6.4.3 Energetics of Growth
		6.4.4 Measuring Growth
	6.5 Summary
	References
Chapter 7 Genetics
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Basic Genetics
		7.2.1 Gene Action
		7.2.2 Qualitative Traits
		7.2.3 Phenotypic Variation
	7.3 Epigenetics
	7.4 Domestication and Strain Evaluation
	7.5 Selection
		7.5.1 Selective Breeding
		7.5.2 Correlated Responses to Selection and Indirect Selection
		7.5.3 Multiple‐trait Selection
		7.5.4 Marker‐assisted Selection and Genomic Selection
	7.6 Inbreeding and Maintenance of Genetic Quality
	7.7 Crossbreeding and Hybridisation
		7.7.1 Intraspecific Crossbreeding
		7.7.2 Interspecific Hybridisation
	7.8 Chromosomal Techniques
		7.8.1 Gynogenesis, Androgenesis and Cloning
		7.8.2 Polyploidy
		7.8.3 Sex Reversal and Breeding
	7.9 Xenogenesis
	7.10 Genetic Engineering
		7.10.1 Current State of Genetic Engineering in Aquaculture
		7.10.2 Growth Hormone (GH) Transgenics
		7.10.3 Body Composition
		7.10.4 Bioreactors
		7.10.5 Disease Resistance
		7.10.6 Cold Tolerance
		7.10.7 Pleiotropic Effects
		7.10.8 Transgenic Sterilisation
	7.11 Gene Editing
	7.12 Combining Genetic Enhancement Programs
	7.13 Genotype‐environment Interactions
	7.14 Future Developments
	7.15 Summary
	References
Chapter 8 Nutrition and Feeds
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Energy Consumption and Partitioning (Bioenergetics)
	8.3 The Relationship between Growth and Food Consumption
	8.4 Requirements and Metabolic Functions of Nutrients
		8.4.1 Protein
		8.4.2 Lipids
		8.4.3 Carbohydrates
		8.4.4 Dietary Macronutrient Relationships (Protein: Energy Ratio)
		8.4.5 Vitamins
		8.4.6 Minerals
		8.4.7 Life History and Reproductive Stage Dependent Nutrient Requirements
	8.5 Digestion and Assimilation of Food
		8.5.1 Fish
		8.5.2 Crustaceans
	8.6 Formulation, Manufacture and Digestibility of Feeds
		8.6.1 Feed Manufacture (Farm‐Made Feeds)
		8.6.2 Feed Manufacture (Dry Pelleting)
		8.6.3 Digestibility of Feedstuffs and Nutrients
		8.6.4 Anti‐nutrients and Contaminants
		8.6.5 Feedstuff Alternatives and Additives
	8.7 Nutrition Management Strategies
		8.7.1 Use of Natural Food as Complementary Nutrient Sources
		8.7.2 Integrated Multi‐Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA)
	8.8 Feed Management
	8.9 Emerging Research Areas
	8.10 Summary
	References
Chapter 9 Hatchery and Larval Foods
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Foods for Hatchery Culture Systems
		9.2.1 Microalgae
		9.2.2 Culture Methods
		9.2.3 Nutrient Media
		9.2.4 Nutritional Value of Microalgae
		9.2.5 Recent Developments in Microalgae Production
		9.2.6 Zooplankton
		9.2.7 Rotifers
		9.2.8 Rotifer Culture
		9.2.9 Brine Shrimp
		9.2.10 Production and Sources of Brine Shrimp Cysts
		9.2.11 Hatching Brine Shrimp Cysts
		9.2.12 Decapsulation of Cysts
		9.2.13 Culturing Brine Shrimp
		9.2.14 Enrichment of Rotifers and Brine Shrimp
		9.2.15 Copepods
	9.3 Feeding Strategy for Larval Culture
		9.3.1 Feeding Protocols
		9.3.2 Some Disadvantages of Live Feed Organisms
	9.4 Compound Hatchery Feeds
		9.4.1 Advantages
		9.4.2 Microbound Diets
		9.4.3 Microencapsulated Diets
		9.4.4 Microcoated Diets
		9.4.5 Microextrusion Marumerisation Diets
	9.5 Development of Microdiets for Fish Larvae
		9.5.1 Limited Success
		9.5.2 Constraints to Developing Microdiets for Marine Fish Larvae
		9.5.3 Weaning Diets
		9.5.4 Use of Microdiets in Hatcheries
		9.5.5 Further Development of Formulated Hatchery Feeds
	9.6 Harvesting Natural Plankton
	9.7 Pond Fertilisation as a Food Source for Aquaculture
		9.7.1 Fertilisers
		9.7.2 Production in Fertilised Ponds
		9.7.3 Pond Culture of Fish Larvae
	9.8 Summary
	References
Chapter 10 Disease Principles
	10.1 Introduction to Disease
	10.2 General Principles of Infectious Diseases in Aquaculture
		10.2.1 Interaction between Host, Pathogen and Environment
		10.2.2 Density and Disease
		10.2.3 The Effect of Aquaculture on Life Cycles of Pathogens
	10.3 The Philosophy of Disease Control
	10.4 Generalised Disease Management Techniques
		10.4.1 Batch Culture
		10.4.2 Incoming Water Treatment
		10.4.3 Lower Stocking Density
		10.4.4 Single Spawning Stockings
		10.4.5 Specific Pathogen‐Free Broodstock
		10.4.6 Stress Reduction
		10.4.7 Vaccination
	10.5 Major Diseases
		10.5.1 Molluscs
		10.5.2 Crustaceans
		10.5.3 Finfish
	10.6 Summary
	References
Chapter 11 Pathogens and Parasites
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Viruses
		11.2.1 Betanodaviruses
		11.2.2 Birnaviruses
		11.2.3 Herpesviruses
		11.2.4 Iridoviruses
		11.2.5 Orthomyxoviruses
		11.2.6 Rhabdoviruses
	11.3 Bacteria
		11.3.1 Aeromonas salmonicida
		11.3.2 Edwardsiella ictaluri
		11.3.3 Flavobacterium psychrophilum
		11.3.4 Flavobacterium columnare
		11.3.5 Piscirickettsia salmonis
		11.3.6 Vibrio spp.
		11.3.7 Yersinia ruckeri
		11.3.8 Renibacterium salmoninarum
		11.3.9 Streptococcus spp.
	11.4 Fungi
		11.4.1 Saprolegniasis
		11.4.2 Branchiomycosis
	11.5 Protozoans
		11.5.1 Mastigophora (Flagellates)
		11.5.2 Sarcodina (Amoebae)
		11.5.3 Haplosporidia
		11.5.4 Apicomplexa (Sporozoans)
		11.5.5 Microsporidia (Microsporans)
		11.5.6 Phylum Ciliophora
	11.6 Myxozoans
	11.7 Platyhelminths
		11.7.1 Turbellarians
		11.7.2 Cestodes
		11.7.3 Trematodes
		11.7.4 Monogeneans
	11.8 Nematodes
	11.9 Acanthocephalans
	11.10 Leeches
	11.11 Crustaceans
		11.11.1 Branchiurans
		11.11.2 Isopods
		11.11.3 Copepods
		11.11.4 Pea Crabs
	11.12 Fishborne Zoonotic Agents and Aquaculture
	11.13 Aquaponics
	11.14 Summary
	References
Chapter 12 Prevention of Disease by Vaccination
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Preface
		12.1.2 Definition of Vaccine
		12.1.3 History of Fish Vaccines
	12.2 A Beginner’s Guide to Fish Immunology
		12.2.1 What are the Cellular Processes Involved in Response to Vaccination?
		12.2.2 How Does the Antibody Protect the Fish?
		12.2.3 Immunity to Viruses and Other Intracellular Pathogens
		12.2.4 How Does Understanding Immune Processes Help in Management of Fish Health?
	12.3 Vaccinating Fishes
	12.4 Types of Vaccine
		12.4.1 Killed or Inactivated Vaccines
		12.4.2 Live, Attenuated Vaccines
		12.4.3 Recombinant or Subunit Vaccines
		12.4.4 DNA Vaccines
	12.5 Routes of Delivery
		12.5.1 Injectable Vaccines
		12.5.2 Immersion or Bath Vaccines
		12.5.3 Oral Vaccination
	12.6 Adjuvants
		12.6.1 Adjuvants for Killed Injectable Vaccines
		12.6.2 Adjuvants for Other Types of Vaccine
	12.7 Vaccination in Practice
	12.8 Research and Development Track for Commercial Fish Vaccines
		12.8.1 Research Phase
		12.8.2 Development Phase
		12.8.3 Stewardship
	12.9 Future Trends: Vaccination in the Age of Genomics
	12.10 Conclusions
	12.11 Summary
	References
Chapter 13 Post‐harvest Technology and Processing
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Basic Characteristics
	13.3 Safety and Health
	13.4 Nutritional Aspects
	13.5 The Balance between Safety and Nutrition
	13.6 Aquaculture and Fisheries Products
	13.7 Harvesting
	13.8 Live Transport
	13.9 Muscle Structure: Rigor and Texture
		13.9.1 Muscle Structure
		13.9.2 Rigor Mortis and Nucleotides
	13.10 Stunning and Post‐Mortem Processing
		13.10.1 Electrical Stunning
		13.10.2 Percussion Stunning, Swim‐in and Dead‐haul: A Revolution in Harvesting
		13.10.3 Shrimp Harvesting
	13.11 Effects of Feed on the Product
	13.12 Specialised Niche Market Products
	13.13 Flavours and Taints
	13.14 Texture
	13.15 Concepts: Quality, Freshness, Shelf Life and Quality Index
	13.16 Microbiology, Specific Spoilage Organism (SSO) and Other Spoilage Processes
	13.17 Freezing and Frozen Storage
	13.18 Packaging
	13.19 Quality Control, Quality Assurance, HACCP and Risk Assessment
	13.20 Traceability, Identification and Origin
	13.21 Canning
	13.22 Smoking
	13.23 Summary
	References
Chapter 14 Economics
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Profitability from a Business Viewpoint (Farm Models)
	14.3 Markets and Marketing
	14.4 Economies of Scale and Similar Factors
	14.5 Allowing for and Coping with Business Risk and Uncertainty
	14.6 Economic Assessment from a Social Standpoint
	14.7 Summary
	References
Chapter 15 Seaweed and Microalgae
	15.1 General Introduction
	15.2 Seaweeds
		15.2.1 Introduction
		15.2.2 Reproduction and Life Cycles
		15.2.3 Characteristics of Seaweed Culture
		15.2.4 Culture Methods
		15.2.5 Diseases of Cultured Seaweeds
		15.2.6 Genetic Aspects of Seaweed Culture
		15.2.7 Future Developments for Seaweed Culture
	15.3 Microalgae
		15.3.1 Introduction
		15.3.2 Extensive Culture
		15.3.3 Semi‐Intensive Culture
		15.3.4 Intensive Culture
		15.3.5 Algae for Biofuels
		15.3.6 Choice of Culture System
	15.4 Summary
	References
Chapter 16 Carps
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Biology of the Important Carps in Aquaculture
		16.2.1 Common Carp
		16.2.2 Chinese Major Carps
		16.2.3 Indian Major Carps
	16.3 Artificial Propagation
	16.4 Nutrition
	16.5 Culture Practices
		16.5.1 Larval Rearing
		16.5.2 Ongrowing to Market Size
		16.5.3 Food and Feeding
		16.5.4 Harvesting
	16.6 Diseases
	16.7 Genetic Improvement
	16.8 Culture‐Based Fisheries
	16.9 Conclusions
	16.10 Summary
	References
Chapter 17 Salmonids
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Biology
		17.2.1 Distribution
		17.2.2 Life Cycles of Three Farmed Species
	17.3 Freshwater Farming
		17.3.1 Establishing a Freshwater Salmonid Farm
		17.3.2 The Hatchery
		17.3.3 Broodstock and Spawning
		17.3.4 Incubator Systems
		17.3.5 Alevins and First‐Feeding Fry
		17.3.6 Culture Systems for Juveniles
		17.3.7 Production of Atlantic Salmon Smolt
		17.3.8 Grow‐out of Rainbow Trout In Freshwater
	17.4 Marine Farming
		17.4.1 Site Characteristics
		17.4.2 Transfer to Sea Farm from Freshwater
		17.4.3 Sea Cage Systems
		17.4.4 Biofouling and Net Changing
		17.4.5 Predation
		17.4.6 Fish Transfer on and between Sea Farms
	17.5 Feeds
		17.5.1 Characteristics
		17.5.2 Feed Distribution
	17.6 Grading and Stocking Densities
		17.6.1 Grading
		17.6.2 Stocking Densities
	17.7 Maturation, Sex Reversal and Triploidy
		17.7.1 Maturation
		17.7.2 Sex Reversal
		17.7.3 Triploidy
	17.8 Fish Health
	17.9 Harvesting and Products
	17.10 Environmental Issues
		17.10.1 Solids Pollution
		17.10.2 Chemical Pollution
		17.10.3 Genetics and Disease
	17.11 Summary
	References
Chapter 18 Tilapias
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Family, Species and Genetic Variation
		18.2.1 Family
		18.2.2 Species
		18.2.3 Strains
		18.2.4 Hybrids
		18.2.5 Red Tilapias
		18.2.6 Genetically Improved Tilapias
	18.3 Ecology and Distribution
		18.3.1 Natural Habitats
		18.3.2 Translocations
	18.4 Sex Determination and Reproduction
		18.4.1 Sex Determination
		18.4.2 Reproductive Biology
	18.5 Control of Reproduction
		18.5.1 Monosex Tilapia Production
		18.5.2 Recruitment Control
	18.6 Seed Production
		18.6.1 Pond Systems
		18.6.2 Tank Systems
		18.6.3 Hapa Systems
	18.7 Nutrition, Feeds and Feeding
		18.7.1 Diet and Feeding Habits
		18.7.2 Nutrient Requirements
		18.7.3 Feeds and Feeding
	18.8 Grow‐Out Systems
		18.8.1 Extensive Systems
		18.8.2 Semi‐Intensive Pond Systems
		18.8.3 Polyculture
		18.8.4 Integrated Farming
		18.8.5 Intensive Pond Systems
		18.8.6 Cages
		18.8.7 Raceways, Tanks and Water Recycle Systems
		18.8.8 Growing Tilapias in Saline Waters
	18.9 Disease Management
		18.9.1 Bacterial Diseases
		18.9.2 Viral Diseases
		18.9.3 Fungal Diseases
		18.9.4 Parasite Infestations
		18.9.5 Disease Management
		18.9.6 Prophylaxis
	18.10 Harvest, Processing and Marketing
	18.11 Summary
	References
Chapter 19 Catfishes
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Pangasiid Catfishes
		19.2.1 Biology
		19.2.2 Aquaculture
		19.2.3 Nutrition and Feeds
		19.2.4 Infectious Diseases
		19.2.5 Processing
		19.2.6 Future of Tra Aquaculture
	19.3 Ictalurid Catfishes
		19.3.1 Biology
		19.3.2 Aquaculture
		19.3.3 Nutrition and Feeds
		19.3.4 Infectious Diseases
		19.3.5 Harvesting and Processing
		19.3.6 The Future of Channel and Hybrid Catfish Farming
	19.4 Clariid Catfishes
		19.4.1 Biology
		19.4.2 Aquaculture
		19.4.3 The future of Clarias aquaculture
	19.5 Summary
	References
Chapter 20 Marine Finfish Aquaculture
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Importance of Marine Fish Aquaculture
	20.3 Hatcheries
		20.3.1 Live Food Organisms and Artificial Feeds
		20.3.2 Larval Culture Systems
	20.4 Grow‐Out Systems
		20.4.1 Coastal Ponds
		20.4.2 Flow‐Through Systems
		20.4.3 Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS)
		20.4.4 Coastal Pens and Cages
		20.4.5 Offshore Cages and Net Pens
	20.5 Nutrition and Feeds
	20.6 Marine Fishes in Aquaculture
	20.7 Milkfish
		20.7.1 Biology and Life History
		20.7.2 Aquaculture
		20.7.3 Diseases
		20.7.4 Processing and Marketing
		20.7.5 Industry Challenges
	20.8 European Seabass
		20.8.1 Biology and Life History
		20.8.2 Aquaculture
		20.8.3 Marketing and Industry Challenges
	20.9 Gilthead Sea Bream
		20.9.1 Biology and Life History
		20.9.2 Aquaculture
		20.9.3 Marketing and Industry Challenges
	20.10 Yellowtail Amberjack
		20.10.1 Biology and Life History
		20.10.2 Aquaculture
		20.10.3 Marketing and Industry Challenges
	20.11 Red Sea Bream
		20.11.1 Biology and Life History
		20.11.2 Aquaculture
		20.11.3 Marketing and Industry Prospects
	20.12 Cobia
		20.12.1 Biology
		20.12.2 Aquaculture
		20.12.3 Markets
	20.13 Flatfishes
		20.13.1 Biology
		20.13.2 Aquaculture
		20.13.3 Harvesting, processing, and marketing
		20.13.4 Industry Status and Challenges
	20.14 Sturgeon
		20.14.1 Biology and Life History
		20.14.2 Aquaculture
	20.15 Summary
	References
Chapter 21 Soft‐shelled Turtles
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Biology
		21.2.1 Morphology and Physiology
		21.2.2 Diet
		21.2.3 Growth
		21.2.4 Reproduction
	21.3 Aquaculture Development
		21.3.1 Commercial Farming
	21.4 Culture Facilities
		21.4.1 Indoor Culture
		21.4.2 Pond Culture
	21.5 Culture Stages
		21.5.1 Breeding
		21.5.2 Hatchery
		21.5.3 Nursery
		21.5.4 Grow‐out
	21.6 Water Quality
		21.6.1 Management
		21.6.2 Water Parameters
	21.7 Nutrition, Feeding and Feed Formulation
		21.7.1 Nutritional Requirements
		21.7.2 Feed Formulation and Manufacture
		21.7.3 Feeding
	21.8 Infectious Diseases
		21.8.1 Viruses
		21.8.2 Bacterial Diseases
		21.8.3 Fungal Diseases
		21.8.4 Protozoan Parasites
		21.8.5 Metazoan Parasites
	21.9 Harvesting and Processing
		21.9.1 Harvesting
		21.9.2 Processing and Cooking
		21.9.3 Marketing
		21.9.4 Consumption
	21.10 The Future of Soft‐Shelled Turtle Farming
	21.11 Summary
	References
Chapter 22 Shrimps
	22.1 Introduction
		22.1.1 History of Shrimp Farming
		22.1.2 Current Status and Production
	22.2 Cultured Species
		22.2.1 Western White Shrimp5 (Litopenaeus Vannamei)
		22.2.2 Black Tiger Shrimp (Penaeus Monodon)
	22.3 Grow‐Out Systems
		22.3.1 Extensive Systems (Low Stocking Densities)
		22.3.2 Semi‐Intensive Systems (Medium Stocking Densities)
		22.3.3 Intensive Systems (High Stocking Densities)
		22.3.4 Intensive Systems (Very High Stocking Densities)
	22.4 Preparation of Ponds
		22.4.1 Pond Draining and Sludge Disposal
		22.4.2 Pond Drying and pH Mapping
		22.4.3 Disinfection
		22.4.4 Liming
		22.4.5 Weir Gate Preparation and Entrance Screening
		22.4.6 Natural Productivity
		22.4.7 Initial Fertilisation
	22.5 Reproduction and Maturation
		22.5.1 Hatchery Production and the Life Cycle
		22.5.2 Broodstock Maturation
		22.5.3 Open vs. Closed Thelycum Species
		22.5.4 Maturation Procedures
		22.5.5 Mating and Spawning
	22.6 Hatchery Design and Larval Culture
		22.6.1 Hatchery Design
		22.6.2 Larval Culture Methods
		22.6.3 Larval Nutrition
		22.6.4 Probiotics, Vaccines and Immunostimulants
	22.7 Seedstock Quality and Stocking
		22.7.1 Seedstock Packing, Transportation and Reception
		22.7.2 Counting and Quality Control
		22.7.3 Acclimation and Stocking
	22.8 Production Management and Harvest
		22.8.1 Water and Sediment Quality
		22.8.2 Water Management
		22.8.3 Water Aeration and Circulation
		22.8.4 Population Sampling and Health Assessment
		22.8.5 Harvest and Transport to Processing Plant
	22.9 Nutrition, Formulated Diets and Feed Management
		22.9.1 Nutritional Requirements and Formulated Diets
		22.9.2 Feed Management
		22.9.3 Factors that Affect Feed Consumption
		22.9.4 Feed Handling and Storage
		22.9.5 Application and Distribution
		22.9.6 Frequency and Timetables
		22.9.7 Feed Rations
		22.9.8 Use of Feed Trays
	22.10 Emerging Production Technologies and Issues
		22.10.1 Diseases and Biosecurity
		22.10.2 Probiotics and Microbial Management
		22.10.3 Nursery Systems
		22.10.4 Inland Shrimp Production
		22.10.5 Recirculation, Biofloc Technology and Reduced Water Exchange Systems
		22.10.6 Effluents
	22.11 Responsible Shrimp Farming and the Challenge of Sustainability
		22.11.1 Domestication and Genetic Improvement
		22.11.2 Nutritional Requirements and Formulated Feeds
		22.11.3 Disease Prevention, Diagnosis and Control
		22.11.4 Best Management Practices
	22.12 Summary
	References
Chapter 23 Freshwater Decapod Crustaceans
	23.1 Introduction
		23.1.1 Morphology
		23.1.2 Habitats
		23.1.3 Life Cycles
	23.2 Farmed Species
	23.3 The Chinese Mitten Crab
		23.3.1 Production Status
		23.3.2 Biology
		23.3.3 Culture Methods
		23.3.4 Market and Marketing
	23.4 Freshwater Crayfish
		23.4.1 Farmed Species
		23.4.2 Production Status
		23.4.3 Biology
		23.4.4 Aquaculture Attributes
		23.4.5 Culture Methods
		23.4.6 Markets and Marketing
	23.5 Freshwater Prawns
		23.5.1 Production Status
		23.5.2 Biology
		23.5.3 Culture Methods
	23.6 Summary
	References
Chapter 24 Bivalve Molluscs
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Aspects of Biology
		24.2.1 Morphology
		24.2.2 Filter Feeding
		24.2.3 Growth
		24.2.4 Anaerobic Metabolism
		24.2.5 Reproduction
		24.2.6 Life Cycles
	24.3 Farmed Bivalves
		24.3.1 Oysters (Family Ostreidae)
		24.3.2 Clams and Cockles
		24.3.3 Marine Mussels (Family Mytilidae)
		24.3.4 Scallops (Family Pectinidae)
		24.3.5 Freshwater Pearl Mussels (Family Unionidae)
		24.3.6 Pearl Oysters (Family Pteriidae)
	24.4 Phases of Bivalve Aquaculture
		24.4.1 Farming from Natural Spatfall
		24.4.2 Farming from Hatchery Production
		24.4.3 Nursery Farming
		24.4.4 Ocean‐nursery and Grow‐out
		24.4.5 Breeding Programs
	24.5 Farming Problems
		24.5.1 Predators, Parasites and Diseases
		24.5.2 Biofouling
		24.5.3 Biotoxins and Gut Contents
	24.6 Introductions and Other Environmental Issues
		24.6.1 Introductions
		24.6.2 Environmental Issues
	24.7 Industry Reviews
		24.7.1 Oysters
		24.7.2 Clams and Cockles
		27.7.3 Mussels
		24.7.4 Scallops
		24.7.5 Pearl Mussels
		24.7.6 Pearl Oysters
	24.8 The Future of Bivalve Aquaculture
	24.9 Summary
	References
Chapter 25 Abalone
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Production from Fisheries and Farms
	25.3 Biology
	25.4 Culture Techniques
		25.4.1 Broodstock
		25.4.2 Spawning
		25.4.3 Fertilisation
		25.4.4 Larval Development
	25.5 Postlarvae and Juveniles
	25.6 Grow‐Out Systems
	25.7 Diseases and Parasites
	25.8 The World Abalone Market
	25.9 Summary
	References
Chapter 26 Aquaculture in the Aquarium Industry
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 The Aquarium Industry
	26.3 The Need for Aquaculture in the Aquarium Industry
		26.3.1 Suitability for Life in Captivity
		26.3.2 Ethically Responsible
		26.3.3 Biosecurity
		26.3.4 Supporting Research
		26.3.5 Less Pressure on Wild Stocks
		26.3.6 Species Conservation
		26.3.7 Novel Strains
	26.4 Aquaculture of Tropical Freshwater Organisms
		26.4.1 Culture Systems
		26.4.2 Freshwater Fishes
		26.4.3 Invertebrates
		26.4.4 Aquatic Plants
	26.5 Aquaculture of Tropical Marine Organisms
		26.5.1 Coral Reef Fishes
		26.5.2 Live Corals
		26.5.3 Giant Clams
		26.5.4 Live Rock
	26.6 Sustainable Development
	26.7 The Future of Aquaculture in the Aquarium Industry
	26.8 Summary
	References
Chapter 27 The Future of Aquaculture
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 Drivers of Future Demand and Supply
		27.2.1 Demographic Megatrends
		27.2.2 Limitations by Key Natural Resources and Ecosystem Services
		27.2.3 Climate Change
	27.3 Responding to the Challenges of the Future
		27.3.1 Increasing Resource Use Efficiency
		27.3.2 Increasing Aquaculture Production
		27.3.3 Technological Innovation
		27.3.4 Policy and Governance Approaches
	27.4 Summary
Index
EULA