Applied Welding Engineering: Processes, Codes, and Standards

Cover
Applied Welding
Engineering:
Processes, Codes, and Standards
Copyright
Dedication
Preface to the first edition
Preface to the second edition
Preface to the third edition
Acknowledgments
Section 1: Introduction to Basic Metallurgy
1
Introduction
	Pure metals and alloys
	Smelting
	Iron
		Sponge iron
2
Alloys
	Alloys
	Effects of alloying elements
		Carbon steels
			Sulfur
			Manganese
			Phosphorous
			Silicon
	Alloy steels
	The effect of alloying elements on ferrite
	Effects of alloying elements on carbide
3
Physical metallurgy
	Crystal lattices
	Crystal structure nomenclature
	Solidification
		Lever rule of solidification
	Constitutional supercooling
	Elementary theory of nucleation
	Allotropy
	Crystal imperfections
	Grain size
		Low-temperature ductility and notch toughness of steel
4
Structure of materials
	Phase diagrams
	Different types of phase diagrams
	Iron-iron carbide phase diagram
	Explanation of iron-carbon phase diagram
	Rationale for letter designations in iron-iron carbide phase diagram
5
Production of steel
	Electric arc furnace (EAF) process
	Furnace charging
	Melting
	Refining
	Phosphorus removal
	Sulfur removal
	Nitrogen and hydrogen control
	Deslagging
	Tapping
	Basic oxygen furnace (BOF)
	Refining reactions
	Carbon
	Silicon
	Manganese
	Phosphorus
	Sulfur removal
	Deoxidation of steel
		Rimmed steel
		Capped steel
		Semikilled steel
		Killed steel
	Deoxidation equilibria
	Practical case emphasizing the importance of deoxidation of steel for critical welding applications
	Iron-iron carbide phase diagram
6
Classification of steels
	Carbon steels
	Low-carbon
	Medium-carbon
	High-carbon
	Ultrahigh-carbon
	High-strength low-alloy steels (HSLA)
	Classification of high-strength low-alloy steels
	Low-alloy steels
		Low-carbon quenched and tempered steels
		Medium-carbon ultrahigh-strength steels
		Bearing steels
		Chromium-molybdenum heat-resistant steels
	AISI series
	Material classification through the processing methods
	Recrystallization rolling
	Dynamic recrystallization-controlled rolling
7
Cast iron and cast steel
	Types of cast iron
	White cast iron
	Malleable cast iron
	Ferritic malleable iron
		White heart cast iron
		Black heart cast iron
	Pearlite malleable cast iron
	Martensitic malleable iron
	Gray cast iron
	Castability of gray cast iron
	Chilled cast iron
	Nodular (spheroidal graphite) cast iron
	Castability, solidification, and shrinkage
	Alloy cast irons
	Corrosion, wear, abrasion, and heat resistance of alloy cast irons
	Classification of special high-alloy cast irons
		Graphite free
		High-silicon cast irons
		High-chromium cast irons (Ni-hard)
		High-nickel cast irons (Ni-resist)
		Austenitic gray cast irons
	Steel castings
	ASTM A 781/A 781M: Castings, steel and alloy, common requirements for general industrial use
		ASTM A 703/A 703M: Steel castings, general requirements for pressure containing parts
		ASTM A 957: Investment castings, steel and alloy, common requirements for general industrial use
		ASTM A 985: Steel investment castings-General requirements for pressure-containing parts
		ISO 4990: Steel castings-General technical delivery requirements
8
Stainless steels and other CRAs
	Stainless steel production
		Forming
		Heat treatment
		Cutting stainless steel
		Finishing
	Fabrication of stainless steel
	Welding and joining
	Types of stainless steels
	Classification of stainless steel
	Martensitic stainless steels
	Properties of martensitic stainless steel
	Ferritic stainless steels
		Properties of ferritic stainless steel
	Pitting resistance equivalent
	Austenitic stainless steels
	Properties of austenitic stainless steel
	Duplex stainless steels
		Properties of duplex stainless steel
	Precipitation-hardening stainless steels
		Properties of precipitation-hardening stainless steel
9
Nonferrous materials
	Copper and copper alloys
	Aluminum and aluminum alloys
	Physical metallurgy of aluminum
	Effect of alloying elements on aluminum
		Effect of iron
		Effect of silicon
		Effect of manganese
		Effect of magnesium
		Effect of copper
		Effect of zinc
		Effect of chromium
		Effect of zirconium
		Effect of lithium
	Age-hardenable alloys
	Nickel and nickel alloysNickel and Nickel Alloys
	Titanium and titanium alloysTitanium and Titanium Alloys
10
Working with metals
	Elastic limit
	Plastic deformation
	Fracture
	Polycrystalline material
	Cold-working
	Stored energy
	Restoring the lattice structure of metal after cold-work-Annealing
	Grain growth
	Hot-working
11
Mechanical properties and testing of metals
	Strength of materials
	Elastic and plastic behavior
	Ductile vs brittle behavior
	Failure
	Fracture
	Fracture control
	Crack growth and fracture
		Damage tolerance
	Failure analysis
	Testing of metals
		Tensile test
		Hardness test
		Impact testImpact Test
		Creep test
		Fatigue test
12
Heat treatment of steels
	TTT and CCT curves
		Isothermal-transformation (IT) or (TTT) diagrams
		Cooling curves
		Cooling-transformation (C-T) diagrams
	Stress relief annealing
	Normalizing
	Annealing
	Spheroidizing
	Tempering
	Austempering of steels
		Martempering
	Hardening
		Hardening by martensite transformation
	Case hardening and carburizing
		Liquid salt bath nitriding
	Process of quenching
	Heat treatment of nonferrous material
		Heat treatment of copper and copper alloys
		Heat-treating aluminum and its alloys
		Heat-treating titanium
	Heat-treating furnaces
	Liquid heating bath
Section 2: Welding Metallurgy and Welding Processes
1 Introduction
2
Physics of welding
	Heat
		Detail of the heat flow in welding
	Heat in arc-welding processes
	Heat in plasma arc cutting and welding
	Heat in resistance welding
	Heat in electroslag welding (ESW)
	Heat in welding process using chemical sources
		Thermit welding
	Heat generated by mechanical processes
	Heat by focused sources
	Laser-beam welding (LBW)
	Electron-beam welding (EBW)
	Other sources of heat in welding
	Application of the principles of welding physics
	Preheating
		Determining the need for preheat and the temperature
	Postweld heat treatment (PWHT)
	Heat and time in welding
	Heat input
	Energy distribution
	Rate of heating
	Maximum temperature
	Heat generation and temperature distribution-Practical application
	Time at temperature
	Cooling rates
	Base metal mass
3
Welding and joining processes
	Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
		Process fundamentals
	How the process works
	Covered electrodes used in SMAW process
	Joint design and preparation
	Gas tungsten arc welding
		Process description
	Process advantages and limitations
	Electrodes
	Joint design
	Gas metal arc welding
	Process description
	Electrode selection
	Joint design
	Gas metal arc welding: Newer variants
	The pulse arc systems
		Calculating heat input in pulsed arc GMAW
	Flux cored arc welding (FCAW)
		Process fundamentals
	Principal applications of FCAW
	Shielding gases
	Electrodes
	Submerged arc welding (SAW)
		Process description
	Materials
	Other common joining and welding processes
		Electroslag welding (ESW)
	Plasma arc welding
	Stud welding
	Oxyfuel gas welding
	Brazing and soldering
	Hyperbaric welding
	Arc-welding power sources
		Constant-voltage power source
		Constant-current power source
		Transformers
		Thyristor-silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR)
	Development of square wave AC power sources
		Generators
		Alternator
4
Welding automation
	Mechanized and automatic welding
	Welding automation and robots
		Degrees of freedom (DOF)
		Workspace
			Six-joint rotation axes
		Position control
		Sensing and accuracy
		Designing for robotic automation and selecting automation for welding
		Productivity by robotic automation of welding
		Quality of welding with the use of robots in welding
		Safety associated with use of robots in automation of welding
		Economics of using robots in welding automation
	Further reading
5
Physical effect of heat on material during welding
	The molten metal
	The welded plate
	Influence of cooling rate
6
Stresses, shrinkage, and distortion in weldments
	Stresses in weldments
		Definitions of terms
			Residual stress
			Structure stress
			Reaction stress
			Stress concentration
	Development of stresses
		Moving localized heat source
	Distribution of stress in a simple weld
	Residual stresses
	Shrinkages
		Shrinkage transverse to a butt weld
	Shrinkage longitudinal to a butt weld
	Distortion in weldments
		General description
			Angular distortion
			Longitudinal bowing
			Buckling
	Corrective measures
	Thermal straightening
	Designing weld joints
		Assessing the strength of welds
		Throat of a weld
		Sizing a fillet weld
		Fillet welds
		Stress causing fatigue in weld
		Weld size and cost control
		Control of welding stresses to minimize through-thickness failures
	Welding of carbon steel and low alloys
		Developing a welding procedure or a welding strategy for carbon steel
		Welding low-carbon steels
		Welding medium-carbon steels
		Welding high-carbon steels
	Welding challenges associated with reducing environment
		Ingress of hydrogen during welding
		Ingress of hydrogen in process environment
	Welding and fabrication of low-alloy steels
	Challenges of 9-chrome-moly and microalloyed 9-chrome steel
	Properties of 9Cr-1Mo steels alloy that contributed to its use
	Quality assurance
	Selection of weld consumable and postweld heat-treatment temperatures
	Intercritical region and tempering
	Phenomena of over- and undertempering
	Hardness testing
	Determining creep damage of in-service equipment
	Fabrication and weldability of HSLA steel
	Welding high strength steels
	Forming and working with HSLA steel
	Welding HSLA steel
	Typical filler metal selection
	Filler metal selection
	Heat input control
	Corrosion
7
Welding, corrosion-resistant alloys-Stainless steel
	Corrosion-resistant alloys (CRAs)
	Stainless steel
	Welding stainless steel
		General welding characteristics
	Welding processes
	Protection against oxidation
	Welding hygiene
		Importance of cleaning before and after welding
	Filler metals
	Austenitic stainless steels
		Metallurgical concerns associated with welding austenitic stainless steels
		Mechanical properties of stainless steels
		Welding of austenitic stainless steels
	Superaustenitic stainless steels
		Material properties and applications
		Welding and joining of superaustenitic stainless steels
		Difficulties associated with welding stainless steel
	Martensitic stainless steels
		Properties and application
		Welding martensitic stainless steels
	Ferritic stainless steels
		Properties and application
		Welding ferritic steel
	Precipitation hardening stainless steels
		Properties and application of precipitation hardening steels
		Welding precipitation hardened (PH) steels
	Duplex stainless steels
		Mechanical properties
		Heat treatment
	Welding and fabrication
8
Welding nonferrous metals and alloys
	Aluminum and alloys
	Confusing things about aluminum
	Weld hygiene
	Preheating
	Welding aluminum with shield metal arc welding (SMAW) process
	Welding aluminum with gas tungsten arc welding process
		Types of currents and electrodes
		Grinding the tip of the electrodes
	Welding aluminum with gas-metal-arc-welding process
		Power source
		Wire feeder
		Welding guns
	Welding technique
		The push technique
		Travel speed
	Shielding gas
	Welding wire
	Friction stir welding
	Nickel alloys
		Heat treatment
		Mechanical properties
		Fabrication
		Precipitation hardenable nickel-based alloys
		Heat treatment of PH nickel alloys
		Mechanical properties
		Welding
	Titanium alloys
		Heat treatmentHeat treatment
		Alpha (α) titanium
		Alpha/beta (α-β) titanium
		Beta (β) titanium
9
Weld defects and inspection
	Weld quality
		Acceptance standards
		Discontinuities in fusion-welded joints
			Sizing of discontinuities
	Classification of weld joint discontinuities
	Typical weld defects
		Porosity
		Inclusions
		Incomplete fusion
		Inadequate joint penetration
		Undercut
		Underfill
		Overlap
		Cracks
		Surface irregularities
	Base metal discontinuities
	Designing weld joints
		Basis for welded design
		Stresses in pressure vessels
		Pipelines
	Welding and quality assurance
Section 3: Nondestructive Testing
1
Introduction
2
Visual inspection (VT)
	Advantages of visual inspection
3
Radiography
	Source of radiation
	X-ray
		Scatter radiation
		X-ray equipment
		Power sources
		Control panel
		Gamma ray
		Artificial sources
	Film
	Radiographic exposure techniques
		Single-wall single-image (SWSI)
		Panoramic technique
		Double-wall single-image (DWSI)
		Double-wall double-image (DWDI)
	Radiographic image quality
		Radiographic contrast
		Subject contrast
		Film contrast
		Radiographic definition
	Image quality indicator (IQI) or penetrameter
	Radiation safety
		Automization of radiography process
4
Magnetic particle testing
	Principles of magnetic particle testing
	Calculating magnetizing current
	Type of magnetizing current
	Drying after preparation
	Application of the current
	Alternating current
	Direct current
	Continuous or residual application of current
		Dry method of inspection
		Wet method of inspection
		Viewing conditions
		Inspection under ultraviolet (black) light
5
Penetrant testing
	General procedure
		Penetrant materials
		Specific requirements
			Control of contaminants
			Surface preparation
	Drying after preparation
	Techniques
		Techniques for standard temperatures
		Penetrant application
		Penetration time (dwell time)
		Excess penetrant removal
		Removing excess water-washable penetrant
		Removing excess postemulsifying penetrant
		Removing excess solvent-removable penetrant
		Drying process after excess penetrant removal
		Developing
		Application of nonaqueous developer
	Interpretation
		Final interpretationInterpretation
		Characterizing indication(s)
		Color contrast penetrant
		Fluorescent penetrant
	Evaluation
		Liquid penetrant comparator
			Testing beyond 10-52C temperature range
			The procedure
			Comparator application
6
Ultrasonic testing
	An introduction to the world of sound
	Theory of sound wave and propagation
	Theory of sound
	Piezoelectricity
	Sound beam reflection
	Sound beam frequencies
	Sound beam velocities
	Snell´s law of reflection and refraction
		Understanding the variables associated with ultrasonic testing
	Selection of test equipment
		A-scan equipment
		B-scan equipment
		C-scan equipment
	Testing procedure
		Role of coupling in testing
	Automization of ultrasonic testing systems
	The recording system
	Mapping (TOFD)
7
Eddy current testing
	Method
	Advantages and disadvantages of eddy current inspection system
		Advantages
		Limitations
8
Acoustic emission testing (AET)
	Ongoing developments in AET field
	Future of AET
9
Ferrite testing
	Effect of ferrite in austenitic welds
10
Pressure testing
	Purpose
	Method
	Test medium
	Sensitivity of the test
	Proof testing
	Practical application of hydrostatic testing
	Critical flaw size
Section 4: Codes and Standards
1
Introduction
2
Codes, specifications, and standards
	American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
		Present day ASME
		List of all 12 ASME boiler and pressure vessels codes
		ASME Section VIII, Division 1 (pressure vessels)
		ASME Code for pressure piping
		ASME Section V
		The National Board
		The National Board Inspection Code (NBIC)
	American Petroleum Institute
		API 653 (aboveground storage tanks)
		API 510 (pressure vessels)
		API 570 (pressure piping)
		API RP 579 (fitness for service)
		API RP 580 (risk-based inspection)
	American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
	Det Norske Veritas (DNV)
	Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
	Welding-related specifications from European norm and International Standards Organization
	EN ISO 15607, specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials-General rules
	EN ISO 15608, welding-Guidelines for a metallic materials grouping system
	EN ISO 15610, specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials-Qualification based on tested we ...
	EN ISO 15611, specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials-Qualification based on previous  ...
	EN ISO 15612, specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials-Qualification by adoption of a s ...
	EN ISO 15613, specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials-Qualification based on preproduc ...
	EN ISO 15614, specification and qualification of welding procedures for metallic materials-Welding procedure test-Part 1: A ...
	EN ISO 9606 (five parts) welder approval testing
Index
	A
	B
	C
	D
	E
	F
	G
	H
	I
	J
	K
	L
	M
	N
	O
	P
	Q
	R
	S
	T
	U
	V
	W
	X
	Y
	Z
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