Applied digital optics

APPLIED DIGITAL OPTICS: FROM MICRO-OPTICS TO NANOPHOTONICS......Page 5
Contents......Page 9
About the Authors......Page 13
Foreword by Professor Joseph Goodman......Page 15
Foreword by Professor Trevor Hall......Page 17
Acknowledgments......Page 19
Acronyms......Page 21
Why a Book on Digital Optics?......Page 23
What are Digital Optics?......Page 24
The Realm of Digital Optics......Page 25
Supplementary Material......Page 26
1.2 Understanding the Diffraction Phenomenon......Page 27
1.3 No More Parasitic Effects......Page 30
1.4 From Refractive Optics to Diffractive Optics......Page 31
1.5 From Diffractive Optics to Digital Optics......Page 33
1.6 Are Diffractives and Refractives Interchangeable Elements?......Page 35
2.1 Early Digital Optics......Page 37
2.2 Guided-wave Digital Optics......Page 38
2.3 Free-space Digital Optics......Page 39
2.4 Hybrid Digital Optics......Page 41
3.1 From Optical Fibers to Planar Lightwave Circuits (PLCs)......Page 43
3.2 Light Propagation in Waveguides......Page 44
3.3 The Optical Fiber......Page 47
3.4 The Dielectric Slab Waveguide......Page 49
3.5 Channel Waveguides......Page 50
3.6 PLC In- and Out-coupling......Page 52
3.7 Functionality Integration......Page 58
4.1 Micro-optics in Nature......Page 69
4.2 GRIN Lenses......Page 71
4.3 Surface-relief Micro-optics......Page 77
4.4 Micro-optics Arrays......Page 80
5 Digital Diffractive Optics: Analytic Type......Page 93
5.2 The Notion of Diffraction Orders......Page 95
5.3 Diffraction Gratings......Page 98
5.4 Diffractive Optical Elements......Page 112
5.5 Diffractive Interferogram Lenses......Page 128
6.1 Computer-generated Holograms......Page 133
6.2 Designing CGHs......Page 137
6.3 Multiplexing CGHs......Page 171
6.4 Various CGH Functionality Implementations......Page 173
7.2 Analysis of Lens Aberrations......Page 179
7.3 Improvement of Optical Functionality......Page 185
7.4 The Generation of Novel Optical Functionality......Page 188
7.5 Waveguide-based Hybrid Optics......Page 191
7.6 Reducing Weight, Size and Cost......Page 193
7.7 Specifying Hybrid Optics in Optical CAD/CAM......Page 195
7.8 A Parametric Design Example of Hybrid Optics via Ray-tracing Techniques......Page 197
8.1 Conventional Holography......Page 203
8.2 Different Types of Holograms......Page 207
8.3 Unique Features of Holograms......Page 210
8.4 Modeling the Behavior of Volume Holograms......Page 214
8.5 HOE Lenses......Page 221
8.7 Holographic Origination Techniques......Page 225
8.8 Holographic Materials for HOEs......Page 229
8.9 Other Holographic Techniques......Page 234
9.1 An Introduction to Dynamic Digital Optics......Page 239
9.2 Switchable Digital Optics......Page 245
9.3 Tunable Digital Optics......Page 257
9.4 Reconfigurable Digital Optics......Page 266
9.5 Digital Software Lenses: Wavefront Coding......Page 272
10.2 Sub-wavelength Gratings......Page 275
10.3 Modeling Sub-wavelength Gratings......Page 277
10.4 Engineering Effective Medium Optical Elements......Page 289
10.5 Form Birefringence Materials......Page 294
10.6 Guided Mode Resonance Gratings......Page 297
10.7 Surface Plasmonics......Page 299
10.8 Photonic Crystals......Page 301
10.9 Optical Metamaterials......Page 310
11.1 Tools Based on Ray Tracing......Page 317
11.2 Scalar Diffraction Based Propagators......Page 320
11.3 Beam Propagation Modeling (BPM) Methods......Page 343
11.4 Nonparaxial Diffraction Regime Issues......Page 345
11.5 Rigorous Electromagnetic Modeling Techniques......Page 348
11.6 Digital Optics Design and Modeling Tools Available Today......Page 349
11.7 Practical Paraxial Numeric Modeling Examples......Page 352
12 Digital Optics Fabrication Techniques......Page 361
12.1 Holographic Origination......Page 362
12.2 Diamond Tool Machining......Page 364
12.3 Photo-reduction......Page 368
12.4 Microlithographic Fabrication of Digital Optics......Page 369
12.5 Micro-refractive Element Fabrication Techniques......Page 407
12.6 Direct Writing Techniques......Page 410
12.7 Gray-scale Optical Lithography......Page 416
12.8 Front/Back Side Wafer Alignments and Wafer Stacks......Page 428
12.9 A Summary of Fabrication Techniques......Page 430
13.1 The Lithographic Challenge......Page 435
13.2 Software Solutions: Reticle Enhancement Techniques......Page 440
13.3 Hardware Solutions......Page 467
13.4 Process Solutions......Page 471
14.1 The LIGA Process......Page 475
14.2 Mold Generation Techniques......Page 477
14.3 Embossing Techniques......Page 481
14.5 Injection Molding Techniques......Page 486
14.6 The Sol-Gel Process......Page 493
14.7 The Nano-replication Process......Page 494
14.8 A Summary of Replication Technologies......Page 497
15.1 Fabless Lithographic Fabrication Management......Page 501
15.2 Specifying the Fabrication Process......Page 502
15.3 Fabrication Evaluation......Page 516
15.4 Optical Functionality Evaluation......Page 532
16 Digital Optics Application Pools......Page 543
16.1 Heavy Industry......Page 544
16.2 Defense, Security and Space......Page 554
16.3 Clean Energy......Page 561
16.4 Factory Automation......Page 563
16.5 Optical Telecoms......Page 566
16.6 Biomedical Applications......Page 570
16.7 Entertainment and Marketing......Page 575
16.8 Consumer Electronics......Page 576
16.10 The Future of Digital Optics......Page 596
Conclusion......Page 603
A.2 Wave Propagation and the Wave Equation......Page 605
A.3 Towards a Scalar Field Representation......Page 606
B.1 Full Scalar Theory......Page 609
B.2 Scalar Diffraction Models for Digital Optics......Page 616
B.3 Extended Scalar Models......Page 617
C.1 The Fourier Transform in Optics Today......Page 619
C.3 The Complex Fourier Transform......Page 622
C.4 The Discrete Fourier Transform......Page 623
C.5 The Properties of the Fourier Transform and Examples in Optics......Page 626
C.6 Other Transforms......Page 628
Index......Page 633