Applications of Nanovesicular Drug Delivery

Applications of Nanovesicular Drug Delivery
Copyright
Contents
List of contributors
Preface
1 Targeting cellular and molecular mechanisms of nanovesicular systems for the treatment of different diseases
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Lipid nanovesicular systems
		1.2.1 Liposomes
		1.2.2 Elastic liposomes: ethosomes and transferosomes
		1.2.3 Niosomes
		1.2.4 Ufasomes
	1.3 Polymer nanovesicular systems
		1.3.1 Polymersomes/polymer vesicles
		1.3.2 Nanovesicular systems for targeting to cellular mechanisms
		1.3.3 Nanovesicular systems for targeting molecular mechanisms and the era of CRISPR/CAS9
		1.3.4 Nanovesicular systems for the treatment of different diseases
	1.4 Conclusions
	References
2 Nanovesicles for drug codelivery
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Combination drug therapy
	2.3 General overview of nanovesicles
		2.3.1 Liposomes
		2.3.2 Niosomes
		2.3.3 Exosomes
		2.3.4 Spanlastics
	2.4 Design and preparation techniques of codelivery nanovesicles
		2.4.1 Mechanical dispersion/film hydration method
		2.4.2 Ultrasonication method
		2.4.3 Self-assembling
		2.4.4 Solvent dispersion methods
		2.4.5 Detergent removal method
		2.4.6 Microfluidization method
		2.4.7 Handjani–Vila method
	2.5 Nanodrug codelivery systems
		2.5.1 Nanovesicles-hydrogels for codelivery of drugs
		2.5.2 Nanovesicles for codelivery of anticancer drugs
		2.5.3 Nanovesicles for codelivery of cardiovascular drugs
		2.5.4 Nanovesicles for codelivery of antibacterial/antiinflammatory drugs
	2.6 Conclusion
	References
3 Theranostic nanovesicles
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Imaging strategies
		3.2.1 Optical imaging
		3.2.2 Magnetic resonance imaging
		3.2.3 Radionuclide-based imaging
		3.2.4 Computed tomography
		3.2.5 Ultrasound
	3.3 Different nanovesicles used as theranostic system
		3.3.1 Liposomes
		3.3.2 Ethosomes
		3.3.3 Transferosomes
		3.3.4 Niosomes
		3.3.5 Polymersomes
	3.4 Conclusion
	References
4 Nanovesicles for ocular drug delivery
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Physiology, routes of drug administration and ocular barriers for drug penetration
		4.2.1 Physiology of the eye
		4.2.2 Routes of drug administration to the eye and corresponding ocular barriers
	4.3 Ocular diseases
		4.3.1 Anterior segment diseases
		4.3.2 Posterior segment diseases
	4.4 Nanovesicles for ocular drug delivery
		4.4.1 Preclinical studies
			4.4.1.1 Nanovesicles for anterior segment disease treatment
			4.4.1.2 Nanovesicles for posterior segment disease treatment
			4.4.1.3 Nanovesicle assisted gene therapy for ocular disease treatment
		4.4.2 Clinical studies and approved products
	4.5 Conclusions and future perspectives
	Acknowledgments and funding
	References
5 Nanovesicles for nasal drug delivery
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Intranasal drug delivery system
	5.3 Dosage forms and absorption enhancers
		5.3.1 Nasal drops
		5.3.2 Nasal spray
		5.3.3 Nasal gel
		5.3.4 Nasal powders
	5.4 Benefits of intranasal drug delivery
	5.5 Barriers in nasal distribution
		5.5.1 Poor bioavailability
		5.5.2 Biliary clearance
		5.5.3 Enzyme degradation
	5.6 Need for intranasal drug delivery system
	5.7 Anatomy and physiology of nasal route
	5.8 Mechanism of absorption of drugs via nasal route
		5.8.1 Intracellular pathway
		5.8.2 Transcellular transport
	5.9 Nasal devices
	5.10 Role of nanotechnology intranasal drug delivery
	5.11 Nanovesicles for intranasal drug delivery
		5.11.1 Lipid based nanovesicles
			5.11.1.1 Liposomes
				5.11.1.1.1 Method of preparation of liposomes
			5.11.1.2 Transfersomes
				5.11.1.2.1 Method of preparation of transfersomes
			5.11.1.3 Ethosomes
				5.11.1.3.1 Method of preparation of ethosomes
			5.11.1.4 Magnesomes
				5.11.1.4.1 Method of preparation of magnesomes
			5.11.1.5 Ufasome
				5.11.1.5.1 Method of preparation of ufasomes
			5.11.1.6 Novasomes
				5.11.1.6.1 Method of preparation of novasomes
		5.11.2 Nonionic surfactant based nanovesicles
			5.11.2.1 Niosomes
				5.11.2.1.1 Method of preparation of niosomes
			5.11.2.2 Spanlastics
				5.11.2.2.1 Method of Preparation of spanlastics
		5.11.3 Biologically derived nanovesicles
			5.11.3.1 Exosomes
				5.11.3.1.1 Method of preparation of exosomes
	5.12 Applications of nanovesicular intranasal delivery system
		5.12.1 Viral infection
		5.12.2 Osteoclastic bone resorption
		5.12.3 Central nervous system disorders
		5.12.4 Migraine
		5.12.5 Hypertension
		5.12.6 Anxiety disorders
		5.12.7 Antinociceptive
		5.12.8 Oxytocin and insulin delivery
		5.12.9 Cancer
		5.12.10 Neurodegenerative/brain inflammatory disease
		5.12.11 Cerebral arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vertigo disorders
	5.13 Conclusion
	References
6 Nanovesicles for transdermal drug delivery
	6.1 Introduction
		6.1.1 The mechanisms of interactions between nanovesicle systems and skin
	6.2 Lipid-based vesicular nanostructures for transdermal drug delivery
		6.2.1 Traditional liposomes as skin drug delivery systems
		6.2.2 Transfersomes
		6.2.3 Ethosomes
		6.2.4 Invasome
		6.2.5 Glycerosomes
		6.2.6 Hyalurosomes
	6.3 Nanovesicles formed by nonlipid building blocks
		6.3.1 Niosomes as transdermal drug delivery systems
		6.3.2 Polymersomes as transdermal drug delivery systems
	6.4 Conclusion and future perspective
	References
7 Nanovesicles for intravenous drug delivery
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Intravenous drug administration
	7.3 Nanovesicular systems
		7.3.1 Liposomes
		7.3.2 Niosomes
		7.3.3 Polymersomes
		7.3.4 Transfersomes
		7.3.5 Ethosomes and ethosomal nanovesicles
		7.3.6 Phytosomes
		7.3.7 Extracellular vesicles
	7.4 Intravenous nanovesicles for imaging
	7.5 Intraveneous nanovesicles for therapy
		7.5.1 Tumor targeting and cancer therapy
		7.5.2 Fungal infections
		7.5.3 Pain management and inflammatory diseases
		7.5.4 Others
	7.6 Intravenous nanovesicles for gene therapy
		7.6.1 Intravenous nanovesicular systems developed for gene augmentation
		7.6.2 Intravenous nanovesicular systems developed for gene silencing (suppression)
		7.6.3 Intravenous nanovesicular systems developed for genome editing
	7.7 Intravenous nanovesicles for theranostic
	7.8 Conclusion
	References
8 Nanovesicles for target specific drug delivery
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Liposomes as drug delivery vesicles
		8.2.1 Types of liposomes
		8.2.2 Applications
	8.3 Polymeric micelles as drug delivery vehicles
		8.3.1 Applications
	8.4 Exosomes as drug delivery vesicles
		8.4.1 Applications
	8.5 Niosomes—drug delivery vesicles
		8.5.1 Applications
	8.6 New era of vesicular drug delivery systems
		8.6.1 Transferosomes
		8.6.2 Ethosomes
		8.6.3 Sphingosomes
		8.6.4 Cubosomes
		8.6.5 Ufasomes
		8.6.6 Colloidosomes
		8.6.7 Aquasomes
		8.6.8 Polymerosomes
		8.6.9 Emulsomes
		8.6.10 Virosomes
		8.6.11 Enzymosomes
		8.6.12 Pharmacosomes
	8.7 Conclusions
	References
9 Blood–brain barrier and nanovesicles for brain-targeting drug delivery
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Neurovascular unit
		9.2.1 Blood–brain barrier and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier roles
		9.2.2 Immunosurveillance in neurovascular unit
		9.2.3 Tight junctional molecular machinery
		9.2.4 Blood–brain barrier models
		9.2.5 Blood–brain barrier transport machinery
		9.2.6 Endocytosis, transcytosis, and vesicular trafficking
		9.2.7 Nanovesicles delivery mechanisms
	9.3 Issues with the targeted therapy of brain diseases
	9.4 Nanoscale brain-targeting delivery systems
	9.5 Nanovesicles
		9.5.1 Lipid-based nanovesicles for brain targeting
			9.5.1.1 Liposomes
			9.5.1.2 Niosomes
			9.5.1.3 Transfersomes
			9.5.1.4 Ethosomes
			9.5.1.5 Exosomes and ectosomes
			9.5.1.6 Lipid-based nanovesicles preparation
				9.5.1.6.1 Microfluidic-based production of nanovesicles
		9.5.2 Translation of brain-targeting lipid-based nanovesicles
		9.5.3 Polymer-based nanovesicles
	9.6 Concluding remarks
	References
10 Nanovesicles for hepatic-targeted drug delivery
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Nanovesicular systems for drug delivery to liver
	10.3 Mechanism of nanovesicles-targeted delivery
		10.3.1 Passive targeting
		10.3.2 Active targeting
	10.4 Role in improving the drug distribution and pharmacokinetic parameters
	10.5 Applications
		10.5.1 Nanovesicles for hepatocellular carcinoma
			10.5.1.1 Targeting epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR)
			10.5.1.2 Targeting integrins
			10.5.1.3 Targeting folate receptors
			10.5.1.4 Targeting mannose receptors
			10.5.1.5 Targeting glucose receptors
			10.5.1.6 Targeting asialoglycoprotein receptors
			10.5.1.7 Dual receptor targeting
			10.5.1.8 Nanovesicles for hepatic fibrosis
				10.5.1.8.1 Targeting mannose 6-phosphate/ insulin-like growth factor-II receptor (M6P/IGF-IIRs)
				10.5.1.8.2 Targeting integrins
				10.5.1.8.3 Targeting platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR-β)
			10.5.1.9 Targeting collagen type VI receptor
			10.5.1.10 Targeting high-affinity membrane receptor for retinol-binding protein
			10.5.1.11 CXCR4 receptor-positive cells in fibrotic livers
			10.5.1.12 Fibroblast growth factor-inducible 14 (Fn14)
		10.5.2 Nanovesicles for hepatic infections
		10.5.3 Nanovesicles for hepatoprotective effect
	10.6 Conclusion
	References
11 Nanovesicles for tumor-targeted drug delivery
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Nanovesicles
		11.2.1 Liposomes
		11.2.2 Niosomes
		11.2.3 Phytosomes
		11.2.4 Ethosomes
		11.2.5 Polymersomes
		11.2.6 Exosomes
		11.2.7 Transfersomes
	11.3 Targeting mechanisms of nanovesicles for tumor
		11.3.1 Passive targeting
		11.3.2 Active targeting
			11.3.2.1 Stimuli-responsive active targeting
			11.3.2.2 Ligand-mediated targeting
	11.4 Nanovesicles for tumor imaging
		11.4.1 Magnetic resonance imaging
		11.4.2 Computed tomography imaging
		11.4.3 Nuclear medicine imaging
	11.5 Nanovesicles for tumor treatment
	11.6 Nanovesicles for theranostic approach
	11.7 Conclusion
	References
12 Tumor microenvironment-responsive nanovesicular drug delivery systems
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Doxorubicin-based nanovesiculars
		12.1.2 Paclitaxel-based nanovesiculars
		12.1.3 Physiological tumor microenvironment characteristics
			12.1.3.1 Extracellular matrix modification
			12.1.3.2 Abnormal vascular structure and lymphatic system
		12.1.4 Tumor biochemical characteristics
			12.1.4.1 Extracellular acidification
			12.1.4.2 Enzymatic and redox environment
			12.1.4.3 Hypoxic microenvironment
		12.1.5 Immune microenvironment characteristics
			12.1.5.1 Regulatory T-cells
			12.1.5.2 Myeloid-derived suppressor cells
			12.1.5.3 Tumor-associated macrophages
	12.2 Conclusion
	References
13 Nanovesicles for colon-targeted drug delivery
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Factors affecting colonic drug delivery
	13.3 Advantages and limitations of colon-targeted drug delivery systems
	13.4 Application of nanocarriers other than nanovesicles for colon-targeted drug delivery
	13.5 Applications of nanovesicles for the treatment of colonic disease
		13.5.1 Liposomes
		13.5.2 Niosomes
		13.5.3 Phytosomes
		13.5.4 Cubosomes
		13.5.5 Emulsosome
	13.6 Applications of nanovesicles in the detection of colonic disease
	13.7 Conclusion and future prospects
	References
14 Nanovesicles for delivery of anticancer drugs
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Classification and development of the nanovesicles
		14.2.1 Classification of the nanovesicles
			14.2.1.1 Extracellular nanovesicles or exosomes
			14.2.1.2 Lipid membrane-derived nanovesicles or liposomes
			14.2.1.3 Polymer-derived nanovesicles or polymersomes
	14.3 Applications of the nanovesicles for the delivery of anticancer drugs
	14.4 Conclusion and future prospects
	References
15 Nanovesicles for the treatment of skin disorders
	15.1 Introduction
		15.1.1 Skin permeation pathways
	15.2 Types of nanovesicles
		15.2.1 Liposomes
		15.2.2 Ethosomes
		15.2.3 Niosomes
		15.2.4 Transfersomes
		15.2.5 Cubosomes
		15.2.6 Solid lipid nanoparticles
		15.2.7 Nanostructured lipid carriers
		15.2.8 Nanoemulsion
		15.2.9 Polymeric nanoparticles
		15.2.10 Nanofibers
		15.2.11 Dendrimers
	15.3 Skin disorders
		15.3.1 Skin cancer
		15.3.2 Psoriasis
		15.3.3 Acne
		15.3.4 Alopecia
		15.3.5 Fungal infections
		15.3.6 Atopic dermatitis
	15.4 Conclusion
	References
16 Nanovesicles for the delivery of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
	16.1 Introduction of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
	16.2 Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents
	16.3 Nanotechnology and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs delivery
	16.4 Liposomes
	16.5 Nonliposomal lipid-based nanovesicles
		16.5.1 Niosomes
		16.5.2 Transfersomes
		16.5.3 Ethosomes
		16.5.4 Sphingosomes
		16.5.5 Ufasomes
		16.5.6 Pharmacosomes
		16.5.7 Virosomes
		16.5.8 Quatsomes
	16.6 Methods of preparation
		16.6.1 Conventional preparation methods
		16.6.2 Thin lipid film hydration method
		16.6.3 Solvent injection technique
	16.7 Novel preparation methods
		16.7.1 Supercritical fluids methods
		16.7.2 Recent application of nanovesicles for delivery of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
	16.8 Conclusion
	References
17 Nanovesicles for delivery of central nervous system drugs
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Nanovesicles
	17.3 Categories of nanovesicles
		17.3.1 Liposomes
		17.3.2 Virosomes
		17.3.3 Niosomes
		17.3.4 Proniosomes
		17.3.5 Transferosomes
		17.3.6 Proteasomes
		17.3.7 Sphingosomes
		17.3.8 Archaesomes
		17.3.9 Ethosomes
		17.3.10 Polymersomes
	17.4 Nanovesicles for central nervous system disorders
		17.4.1 Nanovesicles for Alzheimer’s disease
		17.4.2 Nanovesicles for Parkinson’s disease
		17.4.3 Nanovesicles for migraine
		17.4.4 Nanovesicles for epilepsy
		17.4.5 Nanovesicles for psychosis
		17.4.6 Nanovesicles for central nervous system infection
		17.4.7 Nanovesicles for depression
		17.4.8 Nanovesicles for brain tumors
		17.4.9 Nanovesicles for neuroprotection
		17.4.10 Nanovesicles for multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
		17.4.11 Nanovesicles for cerebral ischemia
	17.5 Current challenges and future prospects
	17.6 Conclusion
	Conflicts of interest
	References
18 Nanovesicles for the delivery of cardiovascular drugs
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 A primer of cardiovascular diseases
		18.2.1 Atherosclerosis and hyperlipidemia
		18.2.2 Venous thromboembolism
		18.2.3 Acute myocardial infarction
		18.2.4 Hypertension
		18.2.5 Pulmonary hypertension
		18.2.6 Stroke
	18.3 Nanovesicles for the delivery of cardiovascular drugs
		18.3.1 Nanovesicles for the treatment of atherosclerosis and hyperlipidemia
		18.3.2 Nanovesicles for the treatment of venous thromboembolism
		18.3.3 Nanovesicles for the treatment of hypertension
		18.3.4 Nanovesicles for the treatment of pulmonary hypertension
		18.3.5 Nanovesicles for the treatment of acute myocardial infarction
		18.3.6 Nanovesicles for the treatment of stroke
	18.4 Future outlook
	Acknowledgments
	References
19 Nanovesicles for the delivery of antibiotics
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Nanovesicles as potential antibiotic drug delivery and/or targeting systems
	19.3 Nanoparticle bacterial resistance
	19.4 Antimicrobial resistance mechanisms
	19.5 The impact of nanoparticles on microbial strength
		19.5.1 Treatment techniques as an effective defense against microbial resistance
		19.5.2 Overcoming the current mechanisms of antibiotic resistance
	19.6 Using numerous ways to combat microorganisms at the same time
	19.7 Assisting in the transport of antibiotics
	19.8 Negative side: as a drug resistance promoter
	19.9 Nanoparticles antibacterial application
	19.10 Dressings of wound
	19.11 Bone fortification
	19.12 Dental equipment
	19.13 The mechanism for drug delivery
	19.14 Types of nanovesicles used for the drug delivery
	19.15 Efficiency of different nanovesicles for drug delivery system
	19.16 Role of nanovesicles in the delivery of antibiotics
	19.17 Summary and future perspectives
	Acknowledgment
	Disclosure statement
	References
20 Nanovesicles for delivery of antifungal drugs
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Vesicular delivery systems
		20.2.1 Liposomes
		20.2.2 Niosomes
		20.2.3 Transfersomes
		20.2.4 Ethosomes
		20.2.5 Transethosomes
		20.2.6 Cubosomes
	20.3 Conclusion
	References
21 Nanovesicles in antiviral drug delivery
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 What are nanovesicles?
	21.3 Composition of nanovesicles
	21.4 Development of nanovesicles
		21.4.1 Thin film hydration
		21.4.2 Nonshaken method
		21.4.3 Proliposomes
		21.4.4 Method of freeze-drying
		21.4.5 Ethanol injection method
		21.4.6 Ether injection method
		21.4.7 Hot method
		21.4.8 Cold method
		21.4.9 Reverse-phase evaporation technique
		21.4.10 Ultrasonication
	21.5 Nanovesicles characterization
		21.5.1 Efficiency of entrapment
		21.5.2 Visual representation of morphology
		21.5.3 Zeta potential and vesicle size
		21.5.4 Temperature of transition
		21.5.5 Evaluation of surface tension behavior
		21.5.6 Sustainability of vesicles
		21.5.7 Deformability or elasticity research
		21.5.8 Drug content
		21.5.9 Drug release
		21.5.10 Permeability and absorption research
	21.6 Application of nanovesicles
		21.6.1 Challenges of nanovesicles
	21.7 Antiviral drugs
	21.8 Medical applications of antiviral drugs
	21.9 Designing of antiviral drugs
		21.9.1 Targeting antivirals
		21.9.2 Methodologies based on the point of the virus’s life phase
		21.9.3 Prior to entering into a cell
		21.9.4 Inhibitor of entry
		21.9.5 Inhibitor of uncoating
		21.9.6 As during the propagation of viral
		21.9.7 Reverse transcription
		21.9.8 Integrase
		21.9.9 Translation/antisense
		21.9.10 Translation/ribozymes
		21.9.11 Protein targeting and processing
		21.9.12 Inhibitors of proteases
		21.9.13 Long dsRNA helix targeting
		21.9.14 Structure
		21.9.15 Step of release
	21.10 Approved antiviral drugs
		21.10.1 Acyclovir
		21.10.2 Valacyclovir
		21.10.3 Ganciclovir
		21.10.4 Penciclovir
		21.10.5 Famciclovir
		21.10.6 Foscarnet
		21.10.7 Ribavirin
		21.10.8 Lamivudine
		21.10.9 Amantadine and Rimantadine
		21.10.10 Interferon alfa
	21.11 Nanovesicles in antiviral drug delivery
		21.11.1 Liposomes
		21.11.2 Solid lipid nanovesicles
		21.11.3 Nanoemulsions
		21.11.4 Self-nanoemulsify drug delivery systems
		21.11.5 Lipid based nanovesicles for small interfering RNA delivery
		21.11.6 Polymer-based nanovesicles
		21.11.7 Nanovesicles made of polymers
	21.12 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
22 Nanovesicles for targeting autoimmune diseases
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 Sources of extracellular nanovesicles
		22.2.1 Tumor cells
		22.2.2 Red blood cells
		22.2.3 Dendritic cells
		22.2.4 Mesenchymal stem cells
		22.2.5 Milk
		22.2.6 Plant
	22.3 Biological functions
	22.4 Immune system response to generic nanovesicles
		22.4.1 T/B cells formation and nanovesicles
	22.5 Nanovesicle production, cellular communication, and autoimmunity
	22.6 Nanovesicles and autoimmune diseases
		22.6.1 Systemic lupus erythematosus
		22.6.2 Diabetes
		22.6.3 Rheumatoid arthritis
		22.6.4 Vitiligo
		22.6.5 Preeclampsia
		22.6.6 Multiple sclerosis
		22.6.7 Sjogren’s syndrome
		22.6.8 Autoimmune thyroid disease
	22.7 Nanovesicle-facilitated autoimmune disease treatment therapies
		22.7.1 Autoimmune diseases treatment for mesenchymal stem cell-derived nanovesicles
		22.7.2 Autoimmune disease therapy for dendritic cell-derived nanovesicles
	22.8 Modifications for the targeted delivery of extracellular nanovesicles
		22.8.1 Nanovesicle donor cells manipulation
		22.8.2 Extracellular nanovesicles direct surface modification
			22.8.2.1 PEGylation
			22.8.2.2 pH-sensitive alteration
			22.8.2.3 Glycan modification
	22.9 Utilization of nanovesicles in autoimmune clinical trials
	22.10 Conclusion and future outlook
	References
23 Nanovesicular systems for protein and peptide delivery
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Liposomes
	23.3 Polymersomes
	23.4 Exosomes
	23.5 Nonionic vesicles (niosomes)
	23.6 Organic–inorganic hybrid nanovesicles
	23.7 Conclusions
	References
24 Nanovesicles for the delivery of siRNA
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Preparation of nanovesicles and small interfering RNA-loaded nanovesicles
		24.2.1 Nanovesicle preparation
		24.2.2 Loading nanovesicles with small interfering RNAs
		24.2.3 Preparing a western blot
		24.2.4 Small interfering RNA quantification
		24.2.5 Size and zeta potential measurement of nanovesicles
		24.2.6 Short harpin RNA transduction, PKH67 labeling and nanovesicle-uptake
			24.2.6.1 Short harpin RNA transduction
			24.2.6.2 PKH67 labeling and nanovesicles uptake
		24.2.7 In vitro treatment of nanovesicles in human umbilical vein endothelial cells and λ820 cells
			24.2.7.1 In vitro treatment of nanovesicles in human umbilical vein endothelial cells
			24.2.7.2 Nanovesicle administration to λ820 cells
		24.2.8 The quantitative real time-PCR kit for nanovesicle-small interfering RNAs gene detection/recognition
		24.2.9 Cell count and proliferation assays
	24.3 Some applications of nanovesicles for the delivery of small interfering RNA in target cells/drug delivery
	24.4 Conclusion
	References
25 Clinical trials of nanovesicles for drug delivery applications
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 The legal framework for clinical trials
	25.3 Regulatory challenges in clinical trials in the field of nanovesicles
	25.4 Liposomes
	25.5 Peptide-based nanovesicles
	25.6 Exosomes
	25.7 Phytosomes
	25.8 Niosomes
	25.9 Conclusions
	References
Index