Applications of Nanotechnology in Microbiology

Foreword 1
Foreword 2
Preface
Contents
Chapter 1: Biosynthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Using Bacterial Metabolites and Their Applications
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Nanoparticles (NPs)
	1.3 Synthesis of Nanoparticles
		1.3.1 Top-Down Approach
		1.3.2 Bottom-Up Approach
			1.3.2.1 Biological Methods
	1.4 Various Metals Used for Nanoparticles Synthesis
	1.5 Bacterial Metabolites
		1.5.1 Bacterial Pigments
		1.5.2 Bacterial Polysaccharides and Exopolysaccharides (EPSs)
	1.6 Biosynthesis of Metal Nanoparticles Using Bacterial Metabolites
	1.7 Applications of Bacteria-Derived Nanoparticles
		1.7.1 Applications in Biomedicine
			1.7.1.1 Antimicrobial Agents
			1.7.1.2 Antioxidant Activity
			1.7.1.3 Anticancer Agents
			1.7.1.4 Antibiofilm Agents
			1.7.1.5 Targeted Drug Delivery
			1.7.1.6 Bioimaging and Biosensors
		1.7.2 Applications in Textiles
		1.7.3 Applications in Foods
		1.7.4 Applications in Agriculture
		1.7.5 Applications in Environment
	1.8 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 2: Insights on Microbes-Mediated Greener Synthesis of Nanoparticles: Advantages and Challenges
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Fungus- and Yeast-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles
	2.3 Algae-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles
	2.4 Bacteria-Mediated Synthesis of Nanoparticles
	2.5 Mechanism of Microbial Synthesis
	2.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 3: Use of Nanomaterials as an Antimicrobial and Antiviral Regimen
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Antimicrobial Properties of Nanoparticles/Nanocomposites
		3.2.1 Antibacterial Activities of NPs
		3.2.2 Application of NPs in Viral Infection
		3.2.3 Application of NPs in Fungal and Parasite Infection (Tables 3.3 and 3.4)
	3.3 Nanoparticles (NPs) Are Biologically Compatible (Table 3.5)
	3.4 Biodegradability and Encapsulation of Nanoparticles
		3.4.1 The Selection of Basic Polymers and the Synthesis of BNPs
	3.5 Use of Nanoparticles for Microbial Targeting Strategies
	3.6 Limitations
	3.7 “Nanoviricide”, A New Antiviral Regimen Could Be an Antimicrobial Agent, Too
		3.7.1 Experimental Proof of TheraCour Biopolymer for Their Antiviral Activity
		3.7.2 Nanoviricide Polymeric Micelle Can Be Developed as a Drug Against SARS-CoV-2
		3.7.3 Encapsulation of the Virus by NV-CoV-2 Leads to Its Disintegration
		3.7.4 Protection of Small Antiviral Drugs by Encapsulation with NV-CoV-2
		3.7.5 Safety Studies of NV-387 Polymer, and Drug Product NV-CoV-2
	3.8 Future Prospects
	3.9 Discussions and Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4: Vaccine Nanotechnology for the Prevention of Infectious Diseases
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Nanotechnology in Vaccine Design
	4.3 Nanomaterial-Based Vaccine Platforms
		4.3.1 Self-Assembling Protein Nanoparticles
		4.3.2 Lipid Nanoparticles
		4.3.3 Inorganic Nanoparticles
		4.3.4 Polymeric Nanoparticles
		4.3.5 Biomimetic Nanoparticles
	4.4 Applications of Vaccine Nanotechnology
		4.4.1 Viral Infections
		4.4.2 Bacterial Infections
		4.4.3 Parasitic Infections
		4.4.4 Fungal Infections
	4.5 Challenges and Outlook
	References
Chapter 5: Exploring the Application, Safety, and Challenges of Free Versus Immobilized Antimicrobial Nanomaterials
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Fundamentals of Antimicrobial Nanomaterials
		5.2.1 Metal Nanoparticles
		5.2.2 Transition Metal Oxides
		5.2.3 Nanostructured Bimetallic Systems
		5.2.4 Polymeric Nanosystems
		5.2.5 Drug Encapsulated Nanoparticles
		5.2.6 Traditional Indian Nanoparticle Systems (Mineral Organic Bhasma)
	5.3 Free Antimicrobial Nanomaterials
		5.3.1 Considerations for Design of Free Nanoparticle-Based Systems
		5.3.2 Techniques for Synthesis of Nanoparticles
			5.3.2.1 Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Methods
			5.3.2.2 Microwave-Assisted Methods
			5.3.2.3 Ultrasonication-Based Methods
			5.3.2.4 Photo-Assisted Methods
			5.3.2.5 Traditional Methods
		5.3.3 Applications in Healthcare Settings, Water Treatment, Food Packaging, and Consumer Products
	5.4 Immobilized Antimicrobial Nanomaterials
		5.4.1 Considerations in the Design of Nanoparticle Immobilized Systems for Sustained Use
		5.4.2 Nanoparticle Immobilization Strategies
		5.4.3 Applications in Healthcare Settings, Water Treatment, Food Packaging, and Consumer Products
			5.4.3.1 Application in Healthcare Facilities
			5.4.3.2 Application in Water Purification
			5.4.3.3 Application in Food Packaging
			5.4.3.4 Application in Consumer Goods
	5.5 Bioaccumulation, Environmental Uptake, and Ecotoxicology
		5.5.1 Safety Considerations of Antimicrobial Nanomaterials
		5.5.2 Regulatory Guidelines and Standards
		5.5.3 Risk Assessment and Mitigation Strategies
		5.5.4 Challenges in the Application of Antimicrobial Nanomaterials
			5.5.4.1 Scalability and Cost-Effectiveness
			5.5.4.2 Regulatory Compliance and Approval Processes
			5.5.4.3 Long-Term Stability and Durability
	5.6 Future Directions and Emerging Trends
	5.7 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	References
		Web References
Chapter 6: Application of Nanotechnology in Food Microbiology: Implication on Public Health
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Nanotechnology in Food Microbiology
		6.2.1 Antimicrobial Effect of Nanoparticles
		6.2.2 Nanoencapsulation Can Be Used for Antimicrobial Activity
		6.2.3 Microencapsulation Has Many Applications in Food Technology
		6.2.4 Different Coating Methods Used to Encapsulate Probiotics
		6.2.5 Nanotechnology in Food Processing
		6.2.6 Preservation or Shelf Life of Foods
		6.2.7 Increase in Nutritional Value
		6.2.8 Improving the Bioavailability of Food Materials
		6.2.9 Safety Issues
		6.2.10 Biosensors to Detect Specific Bacteria Strain
		6.2.11 Application of Antimicrobial Nanodispersed Systems
		6.2.12 Nanotechnology in Food Packaging and Safe Delivery Systems
		6.2.13 A List of Food Products Currently Containing Nanoproducts Include
		6.2.14 The Limitations of Nanotechnology in Food Industry
	6.3 Impact on Society
		6.3.1 Positive Impact
		6.3.2 Negative Impact
		6.3.3 Message to the Community
		6.3.4 Public Acceptance
	6.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 7: Application of CRISPR Technology and Nanomaterials to Advance Food Supply
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Crop Improvement
	7.3 Genetic Management and Tools in Plant Breeding
	7.4 Plant Breeding Revolutions
	7.5 Genome Modification by DNA Repair-Based Methods
	7.6 Plant Editing Technologies and Their Applications in Crop Improvement
	7.7 CRISPR/Cas Genome Editing Platforms to Improve Agricultural Crops
	7.8 Rhizoctonia solani Genome Assembly
	7.9 Advances in Gene Transfer Methods
	7.10 Using Nanotechnology for the Improvement of Agricultural Crops
	7.11 The Role of Genetic Modification of Agricultural Crops Based on Nanoparticles
	7.12 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8: Nanomaterial-Based Sensing Platforms for Food-Borne Pathogen Detection
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Nanomaterials Design and Functionality for Detecting Pathogens
		8.2.1 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)
		8.2.2 Quantum Dots (QDs)
		8.2.3 Magnetic Nanoparticles (MNPs)
		8.2.4 Carbon-Based Nanostructures
		8.2.5 Silica Nanoparticles
		8.2.6 Organic Nanoparticles
		8.2.7 Upconversion Nanoparticles (UCNPs)
		8.2.8 Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs)
	8.3 Biosensors Concepts and Applications
		8.3.1 Recognition Elements (Bioreceptors): Key Players in Biosensing
			8.3.1.1 Antibody
			8.3.1.2 Aptamer
			8.3.1.3 Phage Display Peptides
			8.3.1.4 Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs)
		8.3.2 Sensor Design/Transducer Aspects of Biosensors
			8.3.2.1 Electrochemical Sensors
			8.3.2.2 Conductometric Transducer
			8.3.2.3 Amperometric Transducers
			8.3.2.4 Potentiometric Transducers
			8.3.2.5 Impedimetric Transducers
		8.3.3 Optical Biosensors
	8.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9: Dental Microbial Biofilms: Control and Treatment Through Nanotechnology Approaches
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 The Impact of Oral Biofilm: A Comprehensive Guide
		9.2.1 The Human Oral Microbiome
		9.2.2 Composition of the Oral Microbiome
		9.2.3 Formation of Biofilm
			9.2.3.1 Adhesion
			9.2.3.2 Microcolony Formation and Biofilm Maturation
			9.2.3.3 Dispersion
		9.2.4 Qurom Sensing
		9.2.5 Clinical Implications of Biofilm
	9.3 Dental Plaque as Biofilm
		9.3.1 Formation of Dental Plaque Biofilms
		9.3.2 Dynamics of Dental Plaque Biofilm Growth and Host Inhibition
		9.3.3 Role of Dental Plaque Biofilm in Oral Health
			9.3.3.1 The Role of Dental Plaque in Dental Caries: Insights and Challenges
			9.3.3.2 Dental Plaque Biofilm in Periodontal Disease: Insights into Microbial Interactions and Pathogenesis
		9.3.4 Conventional Approaches for Eliminating Dental Plaque: Mechanisms and Limitations
			9.3.4.1 Mechanical Plaque Control
			9.3.4.2 Challenges of Mechanical Plaque Control
			9.3.4.3 Antiplaque and Antigingivitis Agents
	9.4 Biofilm Formation in Endodontic Infections: Insights into Microbial Diversity and Ecological Niches
		9.4.1 Endodontic Biofilms
		9.4.2 Counteracting Endodontic Biofilms
	9.5 Biofilm-Enabled Antibiotic Resistance
		9.5.1 Mechanisms of Drug Resistance in Biofilms
			9.5.1.1 Impaired Cell Permeability of Antimicrobial Agents in Biofilm Structures
			9.5.1.2 Efflux Pump-Mediated Multidrug Resistance
			9.5.1.3 Quorum-Sensing Molecules: Regulators of Biofilm Formation and Virulence
			9.5.1.4 Dynamic Alterations in Outer Membrane Protein Profile
			9.5.1.5 Role of Slow Growth and Stress Response in Biofilms
	9.6 Approaches in Targeting Biofilms
		9.6.1 Enhancement of Salivary Flow Postprandially
		9.6.2 Suppression of Plaque Acid Production
		9.6.3 Bacteriophage-Based Therapies
		9.6.4 Enhanced Antimicrobial Activity Through Electrical Stimulation
		9.6.5 Enhancement of Antimicrobial Transport Through Ultrasound
		9.6.6 Enzymes for Biofilm Disruption
		9.6.7 Advancements in the Design of Inhibitors and Antiplaque Agents
		9.6.8 Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)
		9.6.9 Innovative Approaches
	9.7 Nanoparticles in the Fight Against Oral Biofilm
		9.7.1 Understanding the Interactions Between Nanoparticles and Biofilm
		9.7.2 Nanoparticle-Based Metal Formulations for Microbial Control
		9.7.3 Nanoparticle-Based Photodynamic Therapy
	9.8 Biocompatibility Considerations of Nano Antimicrobials
	9.9 Final Considerations
	References
Chapter 10: Recent Advances in Antifungal Nanomaterials for Combating Biofilm Infection Caused by Candida albicans
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Antifungal Resistance and Pathogenesis of C. albicans Biofilm
		10.2.1 Quorum Sensing (QS) Mechanism
		10.2.2 Formation of Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
		10.2.3 Extracellular DNA (e-DNA) and Genetic Factors
		10.2.4 Efflux Pumps (EP) Regulation
		10.2.5 Persister Cell and Stress Response
	10.3 Nano-enabled Strategies for Developing Therapeutics Against C. albicans Biofilm Infection
		10.3.1 Metal NPs for Combating Biofilm Formation of C. albicans
		10.3.2 Metal-Oxide NPs for Combating Biofilm Formation of C. albicans
		10.3.3 Polymeric NPs for Combating Biofilm Formation of C. albicans
	10.4 Anti-biofilm Mechanism of Nanomaterials in C. albicans Biofilm Infection
	10.5 Conclusion and Future Prospective
	References
Chapter 11: The Effect of Nano Silver Diamine Fluoride in Arresting Dental Caries
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Nano-Sized Materials
	11.3 Synthesis of SDF
	11.4 Silver Diamine Fluoride
	11.5 Mechanism of Action of SDF
	11.6 Adverse Effects and Safety of SDF
	11.7 Indications and Contraindications
	11.8 Clinical Protocol
	11.9 Nano Silver Diamine Fluoride (Nano SDF)
	11.10 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 12: Emerging Microfluidics Devices for Microbial Studies
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Fluid Flow at Micro-scale
	12.2 Device Fabrication
		12.2.1 Soft Lithography
		12.2.2 3D Printing
	12.3 Applications
		12.3.1 Microbiome Host Interaction
		12.3.2 Antibiotic-Resistant Study
		12.3.3 Microbial Fuel Cell
		12.3.4 Molecular Studies of the Microbes
		12.3.5 Screening and Diagnostics
			12.3.5.1 Microbial Culture and Screening
			12.3.5.2 Point-of-Care Biosensor
	12.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 13: Nanotechnology Approaches for Microbe-Based Formulations and Drug Delivery
	13.1 Introduction
		13.1.1 Microbes as Drug Products
		13.1.2 Conventional Formulations and Nanotechnology Approaches
	13.2 Types of Nanoparticles Incorporating Microbial Formulations
		13.2.1 Lipid-Based Nanoparticles (LNPs)
			13.2.1.1 Virosomes
			13.2.1.2 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs)
		13.2.2 Metal-Based Nanoparticles
			13.2.2.1 Extracellular and Intracellular Synthesis
			13.2.2.2 Gold Nanoparticles (AuNPs)
			13.2.2.3 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)
			13.2.2.4 Bacterial Magnetic Nanoparticles
			13.2.2.5 Metal Oxide Nanoparticles (MtNPs)
		13.2.3 Polymer-Based Nanoparticles
			13.2.3.1 Formulations of Polymer-Based Nanoparticles
	13.3 Role of Nanotechnology in COVID-19
	13.4 Role of Nanotechnology in Cosmetics and Microbe-Based Cosmetic Formulations
	13.5 Routes for Delivery of Microbe-Based Nanosystems
		13.5.1 Administration Routes in Practice
		13.5.2 Microneedle Patches as Delivery Systems
			13.5.2.1 Approved Products
	13.6 Future Applications
	13.7 Summary
	References
Chapter 14: Nanotechnology-Based Electrochemical Diagnostic Tools for the Detection of Viral Diseases: Advantages and Disadvantages
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Viral Infections
		14.2.1 Clinical Detection Techniques for Viruses in Common Infection
			14.2.1.1 The Isolation of Viruses with Cell Culture Systems
			14.2.1.2 Serological Methods
			14.2.1.3 Detection of Morphological Changes in Viruses
			14.2.1.4 Electron Microscopy
			14.2.1.5 Molecular Methods
	14.3 Nanotechnology and Electrochemical Progress on the Assay of Pathogens
		14.3.1 Nanosensors/Biosensors
		14.3.2 Point of Care Testing Technologies (POCTs): Current Challenges
		14.3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Electrochemical Sensors
	14.4 Future Perspectives
	14.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 15: Next-Generation Sequencing and Solid-State Nanopores
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)
		15.2.1 Overview of NGS
		15.2.2 Brief History of Sequencing
		15.2.3 NGS Data Analysis
			15.2.3.1 Workflow
			15.2.3.2 Data Analysis and Interpretation
			15.2.3.3 Single Molecule Real Time (SMRT) Sequencing
	15.3 Nanopores in Next-Generation Sequencing
		15.3.1 Nanopore and Types of Nanopore
		15.3.2 Next-Generation Sequencing Methods by Nanopore Technology
			15.3.2.1 Oxford Nanopore
			15.3.2.2 2D Materials
		15.3.3 Molecular Dynamic Simulations of DNA Translocation Through Nanopores
			15.3.3.1 MD Simulations of DNA with Graphene Nanopores
	15.4 Applications of NGS
		15.4.1 Medicine and Disease Diagnosis
		15.4.2 Pharmacogenomics
		15.4.3 Metagenomics for Pathogen Identification
		15.4.4 Metagenomics in Environmental Science
		15.4.5 Epigenetics
		15.4.6 Plant, Agriculture, and Food Industry
		15.4.7 Forensic Studies
	15.5 Challenges and Future Direction
		15.5.1 Data Storage and Security
		15.5.2 Ethical and Legal Issues
	15.6 Summary
	References
		Further Reading
Chapter 16: An Overview of Anode in Microbial Fuel Cell: Current Challenges and Opportunities
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Importance of MFC as an Upcoming Source of Renewable Energy
	16.3 Factors Affecting the Performance of MFC
	16.4 Major Significance of the Anode
		16.4.1 Effect of Electrode Material
		16.4.2 Carbonaceous Materials
		16.4.3 Metal/Metal Oxides-Based Anode Electrodes
		16.4.4 Nanocomposites Supported Electrodes
	16.5 Challenges and Opportunities
	16.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 17: Insights of Nanobiotechnology as Bio-adsorbents for Wastewater Remediation
	17.1 Introduction
		17.1.1 Nanomaterials for Wastewater Remediation
		17.1.2 Bio-adsorbents in Nanobiotechnology
			17.1.2.1 Microbial Bio-adsorbents
			17.1.2.2 Plant-Based Bio-adsorbents
			17.1.2.3 Biomolecule-Based Bio-adsorbents
	17.2 Nanomaterials as Effective Tools for Water Contamination and Remediating Pollutants
		17.2.1 Metal-Based Nanomaterials
		17.2.2 Carbonaceous Nanomaterials
		17.2.3 Polymer-Based Nanomaterials
		17.2.4 Composite Nanomaterials
		17.2.5 ZnO-Based Nanoadsorbents
		17.2.6 Composite-Based Nanoadsorbents
	17.3 Challenges and Future Perspectives
		17.3.1 Optimizing Nanomaterials Synthesis and Functionalization
		17.3.2 Exploring New Bio-adsorbents from Untapped Biological Sources
		17.3.3 Comprehensive Risk Assessments
		17.3.4 Collaboration Between Experts and Stakeholders
		17.3.5 Standardization and Regulation
	17.4 Conclusion
	References
Index