Aphids as crop pests

Contents......Page 7
Preface......Page 21
List of Contributors......Page 25
Introduction......Page 29
Interpreting variation in aphids......Page 31
The taxonomy of pest aphids – what's in a name?......Page 32
The 14 aphid species of most agricultural importance......Page 34
Acyrthosiphon pisum (pea aphid)......Page 35
Aphis fabae (black bean aphid)......Page 36
Aphis gossypii (cotton or melon aphid)......Page 38
Aphis spiraecola (green citrus aphid or spiraea aphid)......Page 39
Diuraphis noxia (Russian wheat aphid)......Page 40
Lipaphis pseudobrassicae (mustard aphid)......Page 41
Macrosiphum euphorbiae (potato aphid)......Page 42
Myzus persicae (peach–potato aphid)......Page 43
Rhopalosiphum maidis (corn leaf aphid)......Page 45
Schizaphis graminum (greenbug)......Page 46
Sitobion avenae (grain aphid)......Page 48
Therioaphis trifolii (spotted alfalfa and yellow clover aphids)......Page 49
References......Page 50
Introduction......Page 59
Detection of genetic variation......Page 60
Clonal studies......Page 62
Life cycle......Page 65
Adaptation to host plants......Page 71
Pathogenicity......Page 76
Dispersal and geographic range......Page 77
Geographic colonization......Page 82
Conclusions......Page 84
References......Page 85
Types of life cycle......Page 97
Host-alternating aphids......Page 98
Non-host-alternating aphids......Page 100
Factors determining the production of different morphs......Page 101
Determination of sexual morphs......Page 102
Determination of asexual winged morphs......Page 103
Colour polymorphism......Page 105
Virus transmission......Page 106
The importance of polymorphism in determining pest status......Page 107
References......Page 109
Orientation and host-plant finding......Page 115
Olfactory responses......Page 116
Plant contact after landing......Page 118
Plant penetration and feeding......Page 121
Pathway phase......Page 123
Phloem phase......Page 127
Phloem feeding......Page 129
Xylem drinking......Page 130
Leaving a plant......Page 131
Plant responses and predisposition to aphid feeding......Page 132
Conclusions......Page 134
References......Page 135
Diversity of microorganisms......Page 143
Location of symbiotic microorganisms......Page 144
Significance of symbiotic microorganisms to aphids......Page 145
Sugars......Page 146
Lipids......Page 148
Amino acids and their sources......Page 149
The fate of amino acids in aphids......Page 150
History of artificial diets for aphids......Page 151
Recipe for the diet and practical procedures......Page 152
Relation between the diet and plant phloem sap......Page 153
Aphid performance on the diet......Page 155
Conclusions and future prospects......Page 157
References......Page 158
Definitions......Page 163
Growth rates......Page 164
Developmental rates......Page 165
Aphid cages......Page 166
Disadvantages of aphid cages......Page 167
Factors affecting aphid growth and development......Page 168
Factors affecting the reliability of size x fecundity relationships......Page 169
Temperature......Page 171
References......Page 172
Pest status......Page 181
The nature of aphid movement......Page 182
Scales of displacement......Page 183
Aphid life stages, morphs and active modes of transport......Page 185
The migratory process......Page 187
Events leading to take-off......Page 188
Take-off and ascent......Page 189
Horizontal translocation......Page 191
Stimuli that cause aphids to disperse in an appetitive manner......Page 192
Landing and alighting cues......Page 196
Incorporating aphid movement into Pest Management strategies......Page 197
Components of IPM programmes......Page 198
Categories of aphids as agricultural pests......Page 202
Conclusions......Page 204
References......Page 205
Introduction......Page 215
Coccinellidae (ladybird beetles)......Page 216
Syrphidae (hover flies)......Page 220
Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae (lacewings)......Page 222
Cecidomyiidae (predatory midges)......Page 224
Other arthropod predators......Page 226
General biology......Page 227
Foraging behaviour and host finding......Page 229
Patterns of resource use......Page 231
Aphid pathogens......Page 234
Biology of entomophthoralean fungi......Page 235
Epizootiology of entomophthoralean fungi......Page 236
Intraguild predation and competition......Page 238
The effects of mutualistic interactions with ants on predation and parasitism......Page 240
Aphid symbionts and resistance to parasitism......Page 242
References......Page 243
Introduction......Page 263
Methods......Page 264
Sex pheromones......Page 266
Alarm pheromones......Page 268
Social interactions: aggregation, density regulation and avoidance......Page 271
Host-plant semiochemicals......Page 273
Non-host-plant semiochemicals......Page 275
Responses of natural enemies to aphid-produced chemicals......Page 276
Responses of natural enemies to aphid-induced plant signals......Page 280
Conclusions......Page 281
References......Page 282
Introduction......Page 289
Diagnosis of resistance in aphids......Page 290
Biochemistry and molecular basis of resistance......Page 291
Resistance mechanisms in Myzus persicae (peach–potato aphid)......Page 292
Resistance mechanisms in other aphid species......Page 296
Neonicotinoid resistance......Page 299
Selection pressures......Page 300
Ecological factors......Page 301
Pleiotropic effects of resistance......Page 302
Aphids in which resistance poses a minor or potential threat......Page 304
Conclusions......Page 305
References......Page 306
Plant factors......Page 315
Nutritional stress......Page 316
Non-nutritional plant factors......Page 317
How aphids cope with nutritional stress......Page 320
Effects of temperature on development, reproduction and movement......Page 321
Cold Stress......Page 322
Coping with cold......Page 324
A molecular approach to understanding aphid responses to stress......Page 328
Conclusions......Page 330
References......Page 331
Introduction......Page 339
Aphid biology relevant to population dynamics......Page 340
Biology of natural enemies relevant to aphid population dynamics......Page 342
Regression model......Page 344
Regression model with stochasticity......Page 345
Cumulative density model......Page 346
Comparison of the different population models......Page 347
Field estimates of abundance and population growth rate......Page 349
Trap estimates of abundance......Page 351
References......Page 352
Introduction......Page 359
Asymptomatic injury......Page 360
Symptomatic injury......Page 362
Basis of symptomatic injury......Page 368
Abiotic factors......Page 370
Biotic factors......Page 372
Ramifications of aphid injury research for crop protection......Page 373
Conclusions on research frontiers in the understanding of injury from aphid feeding......Page 374
References......Page 375
Introduction......Page 381
Virus–vector interactions......Page 382
Host selection related to virus acquisition and inoculation......Page 401
Non-persistent transmission......Page 403
Semi-persistent transmission......Page 406
Persistent transmission......Page 410
Biological factors......Page 414
Disease management strategies......Page 416
Use of genotypes resistant to the virus and/or to the aphid vectors......Page 417
Prevention or reduction of virus spread......Page 418
References......Page 421
Choice of aphicide......Page 435
Neonicotinoids......Page 437
Application......Page 439
Wheat and barley......Page 442
Brassicas......Page 443
Poaceae......Page 444
Top fruit......Page 446
Solanaceae......Page 447
Chenopodiaceae......Page 449
Brassicas......Page 450
Other vegetables......Page 451
Malvaceae......Page 452
Conclusions......Page 453
References......Page 455
Overview......Page 467
Mulches......Page 470
Particle films......Page 471
Sowing and planting date......Page 472
Plant density......Page 473
Irrigation and fertilizer management......Page 474
Intercropping, living mulches and cover crops......Page 475
Provision of resources for natural enemies......Page 478
Provision of refuges for natural enemies......Page 481
Conclusions......Page 482
References......Page 483
Types of host-plant resistance to aphids......Page 491
Antibiosis......Page 493
Mechanisms of host-plant resistance to aphids......Page 494
Mechanisms of antixenosis......Page 495
Mechansims of antibiosis......Page 497
Mechanisms of tolerance......Page 500
Negative effects on natural enemies......Page 501
Biotypes......Page 503
Spread of virus......Page 505
References......Page 506
Introduction......Page 513
Cereal aphids......Page 515
Legume aphids......Page 519
Aphids on orchard crops......Page 520
Aphids on forest and urban trees......Page 521
Glasshouse aphids......Page 522
Aphidoletes aphidimyza (predatory gall midge)......Page 523
Glasshouse aphids......Page 524
Aphids on field and orchard crops......Page 528
Coccinellidae (ladybird beetles)......Page 529
Aphids on field crops and amenity plants......Page 530
Lacewings......Page 533
Glasshouse aphids......Page 534
Aphids on field crops and amenity plants......Page 537
Entomopathogenic fungi......Page 538
Glasshouse aphids......Page 539
Aphids on field crops......Page 541
Aphids in orchards......Page 542
Conclusions......Page 543
References......Page 544
What should be monitored and forecast?......Page 559
Monitoring......Page 560
Forecasting......Page 568
References......Page 575
Introduction......Page 581
Interaction between chemical and biological control......Page 582
Interaction between chemical control and host-plant resistance (HPR)......Page 583
Interaction between biological control and host-plant resistance......Page 584
The IPM case studies......Page 587
Conclusions......Page 588
References......Page 590
Biology of pest aphids in the UK......Page 593
Integrated crop management......Page 594
Chemical control......Page 595
Monitoring and forecasting......Page 596
Sampling and decision-making......Page 597
Crop covers......Page 598
Executive summary......Page 599
References......Page 601
Aphid IPM in raspberry......Page 605
Aphid IPM in blueberry......Page 609
Acknowledgements......Page 612
References......Page 613
Infestation......Page 617
Damage and its economic importance......Page 619
IPM of Aphis gossypii in the USA......Page 620
IPM of Aphis gossypii in Brazil and elsewhere in South America......Page 621
IPM of Aphis gossypii in Africa and Madagascar......Page 622
Executive summary......Page 624
References......Page 625
The IPM challenge......Page 631
Chemicals and resistance to insecticides......Page 632
Biological control......Page 634
Practical control......Page 635
Executive summary......Page 637
References......Page 638
Introduction......Page 641
Population dynamics......Page 642
Indirect damage......Page 643
Monitoring and decision-making systems......Page 644
Biological control......Page 645
Cultural control......Page 647
Habitat management practices......Page 648
Executive summary......Page 649
References......Page 650
Certification......Page 657
Vector species......Page 658
Monitoring aphid flight......Page 660
Chemical control......Page 661
Cultural control......Page 662
Executive summary......Page 664
References......Page 665
A short history of Schizaphis graminum on sorghum......Page 671
Chemical control......Page 673
Biological control......Page 674
Host-plant resistance......Page 675
Cultural control......Page 676
The 'current model' and the future......Page 677
References......Page 678
Aphid-vectored viruses affecting cucurbits......Page 683
Chemical control......Page 685
Biological control......Page 686
Cultural control......Page 687
Executive summary......Page 689
References......Page 690
Damage and virus transmission......Page 695
Monitoring and economic thresholds......Page 698
Damage and virus transmission......Page 699
Monitoring and economic thresholds......Page 702
Chemical and supervised control......Page 703
References......Page 704
Citrus aphids......Page 707
Damage and virus transmission......Page 710
Monitoring and economic thresholds......Page 711
Biological control......Page 712
Damage and virus transmission......Page 713
Executive summary......Page 717
References......Page 718
What is a Decision Support System?......Page 721
Examples of aphid and virus DSSs......Page 722
Case studies......Page 723
New Zealand Decision Support System......Page 725
Western Australian Decision Support System......Page 727
Conclusions......Page 729
References......Page 730
Aphidoidea......Page 733
Natural enemies of aphids......Page 736
PLANTS......Page 738
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