Antimicrobial Materials for Biomedical Applications (ISSN)

Cover
Preface
Contents
Chapter 1 Antimicrobial Materials—An Overview
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Antimicrobial Materials
		1.2.1 Antimicrobial Polymers
		1.2.2 Antimicrobial Nanomaterials
		1.2.3 Antimicrobial Plastics
		1.2.4 Antimicrobial Ceramics
	1.3 Ideal Features of Antimicrobial Materials
	1.4 Factors Affecting Antimicrobial Activity
		1.4.1 Effect of Molecular Weight
		1.4.2 Effect of Counter Ions
		1.4.3 Charge Density
		1.4.4 Effect of Spacer Length and Alkyl Chain Length
		1.4.5 pH Effect
		1.4.6 Hydrophilicity
	1.5 Methods to Evaluate Antimicrobial Properties
	1.6 Clinical Trials
	1.7 Conclusion and Future Developments
	Abbreviations
	References
Chapter 2 Introduction to Microbes and Infection in the Modern World
	2.1 Introduction
		2.1.1 The Many Facets of Microbial Life
		2.1.2 Bacteria
		2.1.3 Archaea
		2.1.4 Protists
		2.1.5 Viruses and Prions
		2.1.6 Fungi
	2.2 Not All Microbes Are Bad
		2.2.1 Microbes Are Utilized in Many Commercial Applications
		2.2.2 Microbial Uses in Medicine
	2.3 Evolution of Microbes with Humans
	2.4 Biocontrol and the Importance of Commensal Microbes
	2.5 Increases in Emerging Disease
	2.6 Identified Medical Threats and Treatments in the Environment
		2.6.1 Influences of Environment and Ecological Destruction on Compromised Healthcare
		2.6.2 Environmental Influences on Improved Health and Healthcare
	2.7 Increasing Burdens on Healthcare: PopulationExpansion, Urbanization, and Increasing Age of the General Human Populace
	2.8 Approaching Challenges and Perceived Threats
		2.8.1 Increased Disease Emergence Due to Modern Technology and Human Behavior
		2.8.2 Resistance in Patient Care Facilities
	2.9 Conclusion
	Abbreviations
	References
Chapter 3 Controlled Release of Antimicrobial Small Molecules
	3.1 Introduction
		3.1.1 Nanoparticles
		3.1.2 Nanofibers
		3.1.3 Dendrimers
		3.1.4 Liposomes
		3.1.5 Nanotubes
		3.1.6 Films
	3.2 Nanoparticles
		3.2.1 Design Characteristics of Nanoparticles
		3.2.2 Examples for Specific Nanoparticle-based Systems
	3.3 Nanofibers
		3.3.1 Methods of Preparation
		3.3.2 Antibacterial Activity
		3.3.3 Drug-release Kinetics of Antibacterial Nanofibers
	3.4 Dendrimers
		3.4.1 Characteristic Features
		3.4.2 Synthesis of Dendrimers
		3.4.3 Main Types of Antibacterial Dendrimers
	3.5 Liposomes
	3.6 Nanotubes
	3.7 Films
		3.7.1 Advantages of Drug- eluting Films
		3.7.2 Preparation and Characterization of Antimicrobial Films
		3.7.3 Examples of Antibacterial Films
	3.8 Novel Concepts in Antibiotic- loaded Bioresorbable Films
		3.8.1 Dense Structured Synthetic Films with Controlled Drug Location/Dispersion
		3.8.2 Porous Synthetic Film Structures
		3.8.3 Hybrid Synthetic-natural Films for Wound Healing Applications
		3.8.4 Soy Protein Films
	References
Chapter 4 Biomimetic Antimicrobial Polymers
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Models of Antimicrobial Action
	4.3 Antimicrobial Polymers with Flexible Backbones
	4.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5 Synthetic Cationic Water-soluble Antimicrobial Polymers: An Alternative to Conventional Small-molecule Antibiotics
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Biocidal Polymers
		5.2.1 Polyhexanide
		5.2.2 Quaternary Ammonium Functionalized Polymers
		5.2.3 Quaternary Phosphonium Functionalized Polymers
	5.3 Synthetic Mimics of Antimicrobial Peptides
		5.3.1 Polyamides
		5.3.2 Polyurethanes
		5.3.3 Chain Growth Polymers
		5.3.4 Other Polymers
	5.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 6 Focal Drug Delivery for Management of Oral Infections
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Biofilms and Oral Infections
		6.2.1 Formation and Characteristics of Oral Biofilms
		6.2.2 Biofilms and Oral Disease
		6.2.3 The Challenge of Controlling Oral Biofilm
	6.3 Focal Delivery Systems Against Periodontal and Peri-implant Infection
		6.3.1 Traditional Periodontal and Peri-implant Therapy
		6.3.2 Focal Controlled Agents in Periodontitis
		6.3.3 Focal Controlled Agents in Peri-implantitits
	6.4 Focal Delivery Systems Against Endodontic Infection
		6.4.1 Canal Irrigation
		6.4.2 Intracanal Medication
	6.5 Focal Drug Agents Against Caries Lesions
		6.5.1 Fluoride
		6.5.2 Chlorhexidine
		6.5.3 Triclosan
		6.5.4 Calcium Phosphate
	6.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 7 Photodynamic Antimicrobial Polymers
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Photodynamic Antimicrobial Polymers—Important Factors for Optimal Antimicrobial Efficacy
		7.2.1 Photosensitiser Class, Structure and Concentration
		7.2.2 Light Source
		7.2.3 Application Environment
	7.3 Biomedical Device Applications
		7.3.1 Catheters
		7.3.2 Endotracheal Tubes
		7.3.3 Intraocular Lenses
		7.3.4 Oral and Dental Applications
		7.3.5 Wound Dressings and Superficial Infection Management
		7.3.6 Gastrointestinal Infections
	7.4 Photoactive Antimicrobial Surfaces for Infection Control in Clinical Environments
		7.4.1 Polymer Coatings and Films
		7.4.2 Antimicrobial Textiles
		7.4.3 Antimicrobial Polymeric Paints
	7.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 8 Antimicrobial Biomaterials in Ophthalmology
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Antiadhesive Biomaterials
	8.3 Antimicrobial Biomaterials
		8.3.1 Metallic Antimicrobials
		8.3.2 Selenium
		8.3.3 Antibiotics
		8.3.4 Antimicrobial Peptides
		8.3.5 Quorum-sensing Inhibitors—Fimbrolides and Dihydropyrrolones
		8.3.6 Other Antimicrobial Strategies
	8.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 9 Metal-based Antimicrobials
	9.1 Background and History of Metal-based Antimicrobials
		9.1.1 Antibiotic Resistance Era
		9.1.2 Metals and Their Biological Importance
		9.1.3 A Brief History of Metal-based Antimicrobials
	9.2 Mechanisms of Metal-based Antimicrobial (MBA) Toxicity to Bacteria
		9.2.1 Metal Binding Affinity and Toxicity
		9.2.2 Reactive Oxygen Species and Oxidative Stress
		9.2.3 Proteins
		9.2.4 Cell Membranes
		9.2.5 Nutrient Uptake
		9.2.6 DNA Damage and Mutation
		9.2.7 Metal Nanoparticles
	9.3 Current Applications of Metal- based Antimicrobials
	9.4 Consequences of Using Metal- based Antimicrobials
		9.4.1 Bacterial Resistance
		9.4.2 Responsible Use ofMetal-based Antimicrobials
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 10 Antimicrobial Quaternary Ammonium Polymers for Biomedical Applications
	10.1 Introduction
		10.1.1 Biomedical Implants and the Problem of Infection
		10.1.2 Quaternary Ammonium Compounds— Mechanism of Action
	10.2 Antimicrobial Surface Strategies
		10.2.1 Non-releasing Antimicrobial Polymeric Surfaces
		10.2.2 Releasing Antimicrobial Polymeric Surfaces
	10.3 Antimicrobial Polymers Synthesis and Modifications
		10.3.1 Quaternary Ammonium-based Polymers
		10.3.2 Antimicrobial QA-based Natural Polymers
		10.3.3 Antimicrobial QA-based Biodegradable Polymers
		10.3.4 Crosslinked Nanoparticles of Antimicrobial QA Polymers
	10.4 Biomedical Application Summary
	10.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 11 Polymer–Drug Conjugates for Treating Local and Systemic Fungal Infections
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Discovery of Antifungal Drugs
	11.3 Polymer–Drug Conjugates
		11.3.1 Importance of the Polymeric Backbone as Drug Carrier
		11.3.2 Cell Uptake
		11.3.3 Choice of Linkers
	11.4 Natural Polymers
		11.4.1 Arabinogalactan Conjugates
		11.4.2 Gum Arabic Conjugates
		11.4.3 Alginate Conjugates
		11.4.4 Dextran Conjugates
		11.4.5 Miscellaneous Conjugates
	11.5 Synthetic Polymers
	11.6 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 12 Methods for Sterilization of Biopolymers for Biomedical Applications
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Sterilization Methods
		12.2.1 Steam-autoclaving
		12.2.2 Dry-heat Sterilization
		12.2.3 Chemical Treatment—Ethylene Oxide
		12.2.4 Gas Plasma—Hydrogen Peroxide
		12.2.5 Radiation Process
		12.2.6 Supercritical Fluid
	12.3 Sterilization of Biopolymers
		12.3.1 Other Natural Biopolymers
	12.4 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 13 Recent Advances in Antimicrobial Hydrogels
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Classification of Hydrogels Based on their Fabrication Strategies
	13.3 Hydrogels with Inherent Antimicrobial Activity
		13.3.1 Natural Polymeric Hydrogels
		13.3.2 Synthetic Polymer-based Hydrogels
		13.3.3 Polypeptide-based Hydrogels
		13.3.4 Mechanism of Action of Hydrogels Possessing Antimicrobial Activity
	13.4 Hydrogels Loaded with Biocides
		13.4.1 Metal Ions and Nanoparticle-loaded Hydrogels
		13.4.2 Antibiotic- loaded Hydrogel Systems
		13.4.3 Antimicrobial- agent Loaded Hydrogels
	13.5 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 14 Catheters with Antimicrobial Surfaces
	14.1 Introduction
		14.1.1 Catheters and Catheterization
		14.1.2 Infection Problem
		14.1.3 The Need for Antimicrobial Catheters
	14.2 Antimicrobial Materials
		14.2.1 Chlorhexidine
		14.2.2 Silver
		14.2.3 Nitric Oxide
		14.2.4 Antibiotics
	14.3 Strategies for the Development of Antimicrobial Catheters
		14.3.1 Release-based Antimicrobial Catheters
		14.3.2 Contact Killing
		14.3.3 Bacteria-repelling and Anti-adhesive Surfaces
	14.4 Clinically Tested Antimicrobial Catheters
	14.5 Challenges and Future Approaches
		14.5.1 Antimicrobial Resistance
		14.5.2 Multi-approach Antimicrobial Catheters
	14.6 Summary, Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
	Review Criteria
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 15 Dendrimers and Hyperbranched Polymers as Antimicrobial Agents
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Dendrimers
		15.2.1 Synthesis of Dendrimers
		15.2.2 Applications
		15.2.3 Dendrimers as Antimicrobial Agents
		15.2.4 Antimicrobial Mechanism of Action of Dendrimers
	15.3 Hyperbranched Polymers
		15.3.1 Synthesis of Hyperbranched Polymers
		15.3.2 Applications of Hyperbranched Polymers
		15.3.3 Antimicrobial Properties of Hyperbranched Polymers
	15.4 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 16 Antimicrobial Activities of Fatty Acids and their Derivatives
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Classification of Fatty Acids
	16.3 Antimicrobial Activity of Fatty Acids
		16.3.1 Antimicrobial Activity of Unusual Fatty Acids
		16.3.2 Antimicrobial Activities of Fatty Acid Derivatives
	16.4 Mechanism
	16.5 Conclusions
	Acknowledgements
	References
Chapter 17 Overview of Antimicrobial Resistance and NanoparticulateDrug Delivery Approach to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance
	17.1 Introduction
		17.1.1 Overview of Antimicrobial Resistance and Its Mechanisms
	17.2 Types of Infections
	17.3 Intracellular Bacterial Pathogens
	17.4 Antibiotic Treatment of Intracellular Bacterial Infections
		17.4.1 β-Lactams
		17.4.2 Aminoglycosides
		17.4.3 Macrolides
		17.4.4 Quinolones
	17.5 Challenges in Treating Infectious Diseases
	17.6 Targeted Therapy of Infections Using Nanoparticles
	17.7 Antibiotic Nanocarriers in Drug Delivery Systems
		17.7.1 Polymeric Nanoparticles
		17.7.2 Hydrogels
		17.7.3 Liposomes
		17.7.4 Micelles
		17.7.5 Solid Lipid Nanoparticles
		17.7.6 Fullerenes
		17.7.7 Dendrimers
		17.7.8 Metal Nanoparticles
	17.8 Mechanism of Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery for Intracellular Infection
	17.9 Treatment of Experimental Infections Mediated by Drug Delivery Systems
		17.9.1 Tuberculosis
		17.9.2 Brucellosis
		17.9.3 Salmonellosis
		17.9.4 Listeriosis
	17.10 Routes of Nanocarrier Drug Delivery for Intracellular Infections
		17.10.1 Oral Delivery
		17.10.2 Pulmonary Delivery
		17.10.3 Ocular Delivery
		17.10.4 Brain-targeted Delivery
	17.11 Nanoparticle Toxicity
	17.12 Concluding Remarks and Perspectives
	Abbreviations
	Authors\' Contributions
	Conflict of Interests
	References
Subject Index