Anthropology: Appreciating Human Diversity

Cover
Anthropology: Appreciating Human Diversity
Dedication
Contents in Brief
Contents
List of Boxes
About the Author
A Letter from the Author
Preface
Acknowledgments
1: What Is Anthropology?
	understanding OURSELVES
	Human Diversity
		Adaptation, Variation, and Change
	focus on GLOBALIZATION: World Events
		Cultural Forces Shape Human Biology
	General Anthropology
	The Subdisciplines of Anthropology
		Cultural Anthropology
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: School of Hope
		Anthropological Archaeology
		Biological Anthropology
		Linguistic Anthropology
	Applied Anthropology
	Anthropology and other Academic Fields
		Cultural Anthropology and Sociology
		Anthropology and Psychology
	The Scientific Method
		Theories, Associations, and Explanations
		Case Study: Explaining the Postpartum Taboo
		The Value, and Limitations, of Science
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
2: Culture
	understanding OURSELVES
	What is Culture?
		Culture Is Learned
		Culture Is Symbolic
		Culture Is Shared
		Culture and Nature
		Culture Is All-Encompassing
		Culture Is Integrated
		Culture Is Instrumental, Adaptive, and Maladaptive
	Culture’s Evolutionary Basis
		What We Share with Other Primates
		How We Differ from Other Primates
	Universality, Generality, and Particularity
		Universals and Generalities
		Particularity: Patterns of Culture
	Culture and the Individual
		Levels of Culture
		Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism, and Human Rights
	Mechanisms of Cultural Change
	Globalization: Its Meaning and its Nature
	appreciating DIVERSITY: Preserving Cultural Heritage
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
3: Applying Anthropology
	understanding OURSELVES
	The Role of the Applied Anthropologist
		Early Applications
		Academic and Applied Anthropology
		Applied Anthropology Today
	Development Anthropology
		Equity
		Negative Equity Impact
	Strategies for Innovation
		Overinnovation
		Underdifferentiation
		Indigenous Models
	Anthropology and Education
	Urban Anthropology
	Medical Anthropology
		Disease-Theory Systems
		Scientific Medicine versus Western Medicine
		Industrialization, Globalization, and Health
	appreciating DIVERSITY: Culturally Appropriate Marketing
	Anthropology and Business
	Public and Applied Anthropology
	Careers and Anthropology
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
4: Doing Archaeology and Biological Anthropology
	understanding OURSELVES
	Research Methods in Archaeology and Biological Anthropology
		Multidisciplinary Approaches
		Studying the Past
		Survey and Excavation
	Kinds of Archaeology
	Dating the Past
		Relative Dating
		Absolute Dating: Radiometric Techniques
		Absolute Dating: Dendrochronology
		Molecular Anthropology
	Kinds of Biological Anthropology
		Bone Biology
		Anthropometry
		Primatology
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: All This from a Finger Bone?
	Doing Anthropology Right and Wrong: Ethical Issues
		Ownership Issues
	appreciating DIVERSITY: A Workshop in Genomics for Indigenous Peoples
		The Code of Ethics
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
5: Evolution and Genetics
	understanding OURSELVES
	Evolution
		Natural History before Darwin
		Evolution: Theory and Fact
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: Disease Evolution: A Case Study
	Genetics
		Mendel’s Experiments
		Independent Assortment and Recombination
		The Role of DNA
		Cell Division
		Crossing Over
	Population Genetics and Mechanisms of Genetic Evolution
		Natural Selection
		Mutation
	appreciating DIVERSITY: How Seriously Should We Take Commercial DNA-Testing Sites?
		Random Genetic Drift
		Gene Flow
	Microevolution, Macroevolution, and Extinction
		Punctuated Equilibrium
		Extinction
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
6: Human Variation and Adaptation
	understanding OURSELVES
	Race: A Discredited Concept in Biology
		Races Are Not Biologically Distinct
		Genetic Markers Don’t Correlate with Phenotype
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: What’s Wrong with Race?
		The AAA RACE Project
	Human Biological Adaptation
		Explaining Skin Color
		Facial Features
		Size and Body Build
		Genes and Disease
	focus on GLOBALIZATION: A Devastating Encounter in the Columbian Exchange
		Lactose Tolerance
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
7: The Primates
	understanding OURSELVES
	Our Place Among Primates
		Apes Are Our Closest Relatives
		Zoological Taxonomy
	Homologies and Analogies
	Primate Adaptations
	The Primate Suborders
	Monkeys
		New World Monkeys
		Old World Monkeys
	Apes
		Gibbons
		Orangutans
		Gorillas
		Chimpanzees
		Bonobos
	appreciating DIVERSITY: Should Apes Have Human Rights?
	Behavioral Ecology and Fitness
	Primate Evolution
	Chronology
	Early Primates
		Early Cenozoic Primates
		Oligocene Proto-monkeys
	Miocene Hominoids: The proto-apes
		Planet of the Proto-Apes
		Gigantopithecus
		Nyanzapithecus alesi
		An Evolutionary Timetable
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
8: Early Hominins
	understanding OURSELVES
	What Makes us Human?
		Bipedalism
		Brains, Skulls, and Childhood Dependency
		Tools
		Teeth
	Chronology of Hominin Evolution
	Who Were the Earliest Hominins?
		Sahelanthropus tchadensis
		Orrorin tugenensis
		Ardipithecus
	Australopiths and other Pliocene Hominins
		Australopithecus anamensis
		Australopithecus afarensis
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: 3-D Bone Scans Suggest Lucy’s Climbing Ability and Cause of Death
		Kenyanthropus
		Gracile and Robust Australopiths
	Early Stone Tools
		Surprisingly Early Stone Tools
		Oldowan Hominins at the Kanjera Site
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
9: The Genus Homo
	understanding OURSELVES
	Early Homo
		Recent Discoveries
		H. rudolfensis
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: The Rising Stars of a South African Cave
		H. habilis and H. erectus
	Out Of Africa I: H. ERECTUS
		Acheulean Tools
		Adaptive Strategies of H. erectus
		The Evolution and Expansion of H. erectus
	Middle Pleistocene Hominins
		Ice Ages of the Pleistocene
		H. heidelbergensis
	The Neandertals
		Cold-Adapted Neandertals
		The Neandertals and Modern People
		Life as a Neandertal
	The Denisovans
	Neandertals, Denisovans, and Anatomically Modern Humans
	Asian Island Anomalies
		Homo floresiensis
		Homo luzonensis
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
10: The Origin and Spread of Modern Humans
	understanding OURSELVES
	Modern Humans
		Out of Africa: AMH Edition
		“Mitochondrial Eve” and the Spread of AMHs
		Late Wave AMHs on the Move
	The Advent of Behavioral Modernity
	Advances in Technology
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: In with the Old: The Evolutionary Importance of Grandparents
	focus on GLOBALIZATION: Giant Steps toward Globalization
	Glacial Retreat
	Cave Art
	Settling Australia
	Settling the Americas
		Beringia and Beyond: Genetic Evidence
		Archaeological Evidence
	Peopling the Pacific
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
11: The First Farmers
	understanding OURSELVES
	Broad-Spectrum Economies
		The Mesolithic in Europe
		Developments in Asia, Including Early Pottery
	The Neolithic
	The First Farmers and Herders in the Middle East
		The Environmental Setting: A Vertical Economy
		Steps Toward Food Production
		Genetic Changes and Domestication
		The Origin of Private Property
		Food Production and the State
	Other Old World Food Producers
		The Neolithic in Africa
		The Neolithic in Europe
		The Neolithic in Asia
	appreciating DIVERSITY: Dietary Diversity and Climate Change
	The First American Farmers
		Key Aspects of Food Production in the Americas
		The Tropical Origins of New World Domestication
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: Global Climate Change and Political Threats to Sites
	Explaining the Neolithic
	Costs and Benefits of Food Production
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
12: The First Cities and States
	understanding OURSELVES
	State Formation
		Regulation of Hydraulic Economies
		Regional Trade
		Population, War, and Circumscription
	Attributes of States
	focus on GLOBALIZATION: The Seven Wonders of the World
	State Formation in the Middle East
		Urban Life
		An Early Ritual Center
		The Halafian and Ubaid Periods
		Social Ranking and Chiefdoms
		Advanced Chiefdoms
		The Rise of the State
	Other Early States
		Asian States
		The Andes and the Inka
	appreciating DIVERSITY: The Inka Khipu System
		African States
	State Formation in Mesoamerica
		Early Chiefdoms and Elites
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: The Fantastic Claims of Pseudo-Archaeology
		Warfare and State Formation: The Zapotec Case
		States in the Valley of Mexico
	Why States Collapse
		The Maya and Their Fall
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
13: Method and Theory in Cultural Anthropology
	understanding OURSELVES
	Ethnography: Anthropology’s Distinctive Strategy
		Observation and Participant Observation
		Conversation, Interviewing, and Interview Schedules
	appreciating DIVERSITY: Even Anthropologists Get Culture Shock
		The Genealogical Method
		Key Cultural Consultants
		Life Histories
		Problem-Oriented Ethnography
		Longitudinal Studies, Team Research, and Multisited Ethnography
	Ethnographic Perspectives
		Emic and Etic
		Online Ethnography
	Survey Research
	Doing Anthropology Right and Wrong: Ethical Issues
		The Code of Ethics
		Anthropologists and Terrorism
	Theory in Anthropology Over Time
		Nineteenth-Century Evolutionism
		Historical Particularism
		Functionalism
		Configurationalism
		Evolutionism Returns
		Cultural Materialism
		Cultural Determinism: Culturology, the Superorganic, and Social Facts
		Symbolic and Interpretive Anthropology
		Structuralism
		Processual Approaches
		World-System Theory and Political Economy
		Culture, History, Power
	Anthropology Today
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
14: Language and Communication
	understanding OURSELVES
	What is Language?
	Nonhuman Primate Communication
		Call Systems
		Sign Language
		The Origin of Language
	Nonverbal Communication
	The Structure of Language
	Language, Thought, and Culture
		The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
		Focal Vocabulary
		Meaning
	Sociolinguistics
		Linguistic Diversity within Nations
	appreciating DIVERSITY: Words of the Year
		Gender Speech Contrasts
		Language and Status Position
		Stratification and Symbolic Domination
		African American Vernacular English (AAVE)
	focus on globalization: Naming a Pandemic: Do Geographic Names Stigmatize?
	Historical Linguistics
		Language, Culture, and History
		Language Loss
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
15: Ethnicity and Race
	understanding OURSELVES
	Ethnic Groups and Ethnicity
		Status and Identity
		American Ethnic Groups
		Minority Groups and Stratification
	Race and Ethnicity
	appreciating DIVERSITY: Why Are the Greens So White?
	The Social Construction of Race
		Hypodescent: Race in the United States
		Race in the Census
		Not Us: Race in Japan
		Phenotype and Fluidity: Race in Brazil
	Ethnic Groups, Nations, and Nationalities
		Ethnic Diversity by Region
		Nationalities without Nations
	Ethnic Tolerance and Accommodation
		Assimilation
		The Plural Society
		Multiculturalism
		The Backlash to Multiculturalism
	Changing Demographics in the United States
		The Gray and the Brown
		The Gray Need the Brown
	Ethnic Conflict
		Prejudice and Discrimination
		Black Lives Matter
		Anti-ethnic Discrimination
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
16: Making a Living
	understanding OURSELVES
	Adaptive Strategies
	Foraging
		Geographic Distribution of Foragers
		Correlates of Foraging
	Adaptive Strategies Based on Food Production
		Horticulture
		Agriculture
		The Cultivation Continuum
		Intensification: People and the Environment
		Pastoralism
	Modes of Production
		Production in Nonindustrial Societies
		Means of Production
		Alienation in Industrial Economies
	focus on GLOBALIZATION: Our Global Economy
	Economizing and Maximization
	appreciating DIVERSITY: Scarcity and the Betsileo
		Alternative Ends
	Distribution and Exchange
		The Market Principle
		Redistribution
		Reciprocity
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: To Give Is Good: Reciprocity and Human Survival
		Coexistence of Exchange Principles
	Potlatching
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
17: Political Systems
	understanding OURSELVES
	What is “The Political”?
	Types and Trends
	Bands and Tribes
		Foraging Bands
		Tribal Cultivators
		The Village Head
		The “Big Man”
		Pantribal Sodalities
		Nomadic Politics
	Chiefdoms
		Political and Economic Systems
		Status Systems
		The Emergence of Stratification
	State Systems
		Population Control
		Judiciary
		Enforcement
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: The Illegality Industry: A Failed System of Border Control
		Fiscal Support
	Social Control
		Hegemony and Resistance
	focus on GLOBALIZATION: The Political Role of New Media
		Weapons of the Weak
		Shame and Gossip
		The Igbo Women’s War
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
18: Gender
	understanding OURSELVES
	Sex and Gender
	Recurrent Gender Patterns
	Gender Roles and Gender Stratification
		Reduced Gender Stratification—Matrilineal–Matrilocal Societies
		Matriarchy
		Increased Gender Stratification—Patrilineal-Patrilocal Societies
		Patriarchy and Violence
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: Patriarchy Today: Case Studies in Fundamentalist Communities
	Gender in Industrial Societies
		Changes in Gendered Work
		Gender and Jobs
		Work and Family: Reality and Stereotypes
		The Feminization of Poverty
		Work and Happiness
	Beyond Male and Female
	appreciating DIVERSITY: Gender, Ethnicity, and a Gold Medal for Fiji
	Sexual Orientation
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
19: Families, Kinship, and Descent
	understanding OURSELVES
	FAMILIES
		Nuclear and Extended Families
		Industrialism and Family Organization
		Changes in North American Kinship
	appreciating DIVERSITY: Social Security, Kinship Style
		The Family among Foragers
	DESCENT
		Attributes of Descent Groups
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: American Family Life in the 21st Century
		Lineages, Clans, and Residence Rules
		Ambilineal Descent
		Family versus Descent
	KINSHIP CALCULATION
		Kin Terms and Genealogical Kin Types
		Kin Terms in America
	KINSHIP TERMINOLOGY
		Lineal Terminology
		Bifurcate Merging Terminology
		Generational Terminology
		Bifurcate Collateral Terminology
		It’s All Relative
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
20: Marriage
	understanding OURSELVES
	DEFINING MARRIAGE
	EXOGAMY AND INCEST
	INCEST AND ITS AVOIDANCE
		The Occurrence of Incest
		Incest Avoidance
	ENDOGAMY
		Caste
		Royal Endogamy
	SAME-SEX MARRIAGE
	ROMANTIC LOVE AND MARRIAGE
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: What Anthropologists Could Teach the Supreme Court about the Definition of Marriage
	MARRIAGE: A GROUP AFFAIR
		Gifts at Marriage
		Durable Alliances
	DIVORCE
	PLURAL MARRIAGES
		Polygyny
		Polyandry
	THE ONLINE MARRIAGE MARKET
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
21: Religion
	understanding OURSELVES
	What is Religion?
	Expressions of Religion
		Spiritual Beings
		Powers and Forces
		Magic and Religion
		Uncertainty, Anxiety, Solace
		Rituals
		Rites of Passage
		Totemism
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: Rituals in a Pandemic’s Shadow
	Religion and Cultural Ecology
	Social Control
	Kinds of Religion
		Religious Specialists and Deities
		Protestant Values and Capitalism
	World Religions
	Religion and Change
		Revitalization Movements
		Religious Changes in the United States
		New and Alternative Religious Movements
	Religion and Cultural Globalization
		Evangelical Protestantism and Pentecostalism
		Homogenization, Indigenization, or Hybridization?
		The Spread of Islam
		Antimodernism and Fundamentalism
		Recent Religious Radicalization
	Secular Rituals
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
22: Arts, Media, and Sports
	understanding OURSELVES
	What are the Arts?
		Art and Religion
		Locating Art
		Art and Individuality
		The Work of Art
	Art, Society, and Culture
		Ethnomusicology
		Representations of Art and Culture
		Art and Communication
		Art and Politics
		The Cultural Transmission of the Arts
		Continuity and Change
	Media and Culture
		Using the Media
		Assessing the Effects of Television
		Online Access and Connectivity
	Sports and Culture
		American Football
		What Determines International Sports Success?
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
23: The World System, Colonialism, and Inequality
	understanding OURSELVES
	THE WORLD SYSTEM
		World-System Theory
		The Emergence of the World System
	INDUSTRIALIZATION
		Causes of the Industrial Revolution
		Industrial Stratification
	THE PERSISTENCE OF INEQUALITY
		Wealth Distribution in the United States
		Risky Living on the American Periphery
	COLONIALISM AND IMPERIALISM
		The First Phase of European Colonialism: Spain and Portugal
		Commercial Expansion and European Imperialism
		The British Colonial Empire
		French Colonialism
		Colonialism and Identity
		Postcolonial Studies
	DEVELOPMENT
		Neoliberalism
		Neoliberalism and NAFTA’s Economic Refugees
	COMMUNISM, SOCIALISM, AND POSTSOCIALISM
		Communism
		Postsocialist Transitions
	appreciating ANTHROPOLOGY: When the Mills Shut Down: An Anthropologist Looks at Deindustrialization
	THE WORLD SYSTEM TODAY
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
24: Anthropology’s Role in a Globalizing World
	understanding OURSELVES
	ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND INDUSTRIAL DEGRADATION
	GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
	ENVIRONMENTAL ANTHROPOLOGY
		Global Assaults on Local Autonomy
		Deforestation
		Emerging Diseases
	INTERETHNIC CONTACT
		Cultural Imperialism and Indigenization
		A Global System of Images
		A Global Culture of Consumption
	PEOPLE IN MOTION
	appreciating DIVERSITY: Diversity under Siege: Global Forces and Indigenous Peoples
	INDIGENOUS PEOPLES
	ANTHROPOLOGY’S LESSONS
	Summary
	Key Terms
	Think Like an Anthropologist
Glossary
Bibliography
Name Index
Subject Index