An Introduction to Brain and Behavior

Cover 
......Page 1
Title Page......Page 5
Copyright 
......Page 6
About the Authors......Page 7
CONTENTS IN BRIEF......Page 9
CONTENTS......Page 11
PREFACE......Page 19
MEDIA AND SUPPLEMENTS......Page 25
CHAPTER 1 What Are the Origins of Brain and Behavior?......Page 29
1-1 Neuroscience in the Twenty-First Century......Page 30
What Is the Brain?......Page 31
Gross Anatomy of the Nervous System......Page 32
What Is Behavior......Page 33
Aristotle and Mentalism......Page 34
Descartes and Dualism......Page 35
Darwin and Materialism......Page 36
COMPARATIVE FOCUS 1-2 The Speaking Brain......Page 37
Contemporary Perspectives on Brain and Behavior......Page 40
1-3 Evolution of Brains and of Behavior......Page 42
Evolution of Animals Having Nervous Systems......Page 43
THE BASICS Classification of Life......Page 44
Chordate Nervous System......Page 46
Humans: Members of the Primate Order......Page 47
Australopithecus: Our Distant Ancestor......Page 48
The First Humans......Page 49
Relating Brain Size and Behavior......Page 50
Why the Hominid Brain Enlarged......Page 51
RESEARCH FOCUS 1-3 Climate and the Evolving Hominid Brain......Page 52
Meaning of Human Brain-Size Comparisons......Page 55
Culture......Page 57
COMPARATIVE FOCUS 1-4 Evolution and Adaptive Behavior......Page 58
SUMMARY......Page 59
KEY TERMS......Page 60
CHAPTER 2 How Does the Nervous System Function?......Page 61
2-1 Overview of Brain Function and Structure......Page 62
Plastic Patterns of Neural Organization......Page 63
Functional Organization of the Nervous System......Page 64
Surface Features of the Brain......Page 65
THE BASICS Finding Your Way Around the Brain......Page 66
CLINICAL FOCUS 2-2 Meningitis and Encephalitis......Page 70
Internal Features of the Brain......Page 71
CLINICAL FOCUS 2-3 Stroke......Page 73
2-2 Evolutionary Development of the Nervous System......Page 75
Spinal Cord......Page 78
Brainstem......Page 79
Forebrain......Page 82
Cortex......Page 83
Basal Ganglia......Page 85
Limbic System......Page 86
Olfactory System......Page 87
Cranial Nerves......Page 88
Spinal Nerves......Page 89
Connections of the Somatic Nervous System......Page 90
Integrating Spinal Functions......Page 91
2-5 Autonomic Nervous System: Balancing Internal Functions......Page 92
Principle 3: Many of the Brain’s Circuits Are Crossed......Page 94
Principle 5: The Brain Is Both Symmetrical and Asymmetrical......Page 95
Principle 7: Sensory and Motor Divisions Exist Throughout the Nervous System......Page 96
Principle 8: Sensory Input to the Brain Is Divided for Object Recognition and Motor Control......Page 97
Principle 10: The Nervous System Works by Juxtaposing Excitation and Inhibition......Page 98
SUMMARY......Page 99
KEY TERMS......Page 100
CHAPTER 3 What Are the Functional Units of the Nervous System?......Page 101
3-1 Cells of the Nervous System......Page 102
RESEARCH FOCUS 3-2 Brainbow: Rainbow Neurons......Page 103
Neurons: The Basis of Information Processing......Page 105
Five Types of Glial Cells......Page 110
CLINICAL FOCUS 3-3 Brain Tumors......Page 111
CLINICAL FOCUS 3-4 Multiple Sclerosis......Page 114
3-2 Internal Structure of a Cell......Page 115
THE BASICS Chemistry Review......Page 116
The Cell as a Factory......Page 118
Cell Membrane: Barrier and Gatekeeper......Page 119
Nucleus: Site of Gene Transcription......Page 120
Proteins: The Cell’s Product......Page 122
Golgi Bodies and Microtubules: Protein Packaging and Shipment......Page 123
Crossing the Cell Membrane: Channels, Gates, and Pumps......Page 124
Mendelian Genetics and the Genetic Code......Page 125
Applying Mendel’s Principles......Page 127
CLINICAL FOCUS 3-5 Huntington’s Disease......Page 129
Genetic Engineering......Page 130
Phenotypic Plasticity and the Epigenetic Code......Page 131
SUMMARY......Page 135
KEY TERMS......Page 136
CHAPTER 4 How Do Neurons Use Electrical Signals to Transmit Information?......Page 137
CLINICAL FOCUS 4.1 Epilepsy......Page 138
Early Clues That Linked Electricity and Neuronal Activity......Page 139
THE BASICS Electricity and Electrical Stimulation......Page 140
Tools for Measuring a Neuron’s Electrical Activity......Page 142
How the Movement of Ions Creates Electrical Charges......Page 144
4-2 Electrical Activity of a Membrane......Page 146
Maintaining the Resting Potential......Page 147
Graded Potentials......Page 149
Action Potential......Page 150
Nerve Impulse......Page 153
Refractory Periods and Nerve Action......Page 154
Saltatory Conduction and the Myelin Sheath......Page 155
4-3 How Neurons Integrate Information......Page 156
Excitatory and Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials......Page 157
CLINICAL FOCUS 4.2 Myasthenia Gravis......Page 158
Summation of Inputs......Page 159
Voltage-Sensitive Channels and the Action Potential......Page 160
The Versatile Neuron......Page 161
4-4 Into the Nervous System and Back Out......Page 162
How Sensory Stimuli Produce Action Potentials......Page 163
How Nerve Impulses Produce Movement......Page 164
SUMMARY......Page 165
KEY TERMS......Page 166
CHAPTER 5 How Do Neurons Use Electrochemical Signals to Communicate and Adapt?......Page 167
5-1 A Chemical Message......Page 168
CLINICAL FOCUS 5-2 Parkinson’s Disease......Page 170
Structure of Synapses......Page 171
Neurotransmission in Four Steps......Page 173
Varieties of Synapses......Page 175
Excitatory and Inhibitory Messages......Page 176
Evolution of Complex Neurotransmission Systems......Page 177
Four Criteria for Identifying Neurotransmitters......Page 178
Three Classes of Neurotransmitters......Page 179
CLINICAL FOCUS 5-3 Awakening with l-Dopa......Page 182
Two Classes of Receptors......Page 183
5-3 Neurotransmitter Systems and Behavior......Page 185
Two Activating Systems of the Autonomic Nervous System......Page 186
Four Activating Systems in the Central Nervous System......Page 187
CLINICAL FOCUS 5-4 The Case of the Frozen Addict......Page 190
Habituation Response......Page 192
Sensitization Response......Page 194
Learning As a Change in Synapse Number......Page 195
SUMMARY......Page 197
KEY TERMS......Page 198
CHAPTER 6 How Do Drugs and Hormones Influence the Brain and Behavior?......Page 199
CLINICAL FOCUS 6-1 Cognitive Enhancement......Page 200
Drug Routes into the Nervous System......Page 201
Drug Action at Synapses: Agonists and Antagonists......Page 203
An Acetylcholine Synapse: Examples of Drug Action......Page 204
Tolerance......Page 205
Sensitization......Page 207
6-2 Grouping Psychoactive Drugs......Page 209
Group I: Antianxiety Agents and Sedative Hypnotics......Page 210
Group II : Antipsychotic Agents......Page 212
Group III : Antidepressants and Mood Stabilizers......Page 214
Group IV: Opioid Analgesics......Page 215
CLINICAL FOCUS 6-3 Major Depression......Page 216
Group V: Psychotropics......Page 218
Behavior on Drugs......Page 221
Addiction and Dependence......Page 222
Sex Differences in Addiction......Page 223
Wanting-and-Liking Theory......Page 224
Treating Drug Abuse......Page 226
Can Drugs Cause Brain Damage?......Page 227
CLINICAL FOCUS 6.4 Drug-Induced Psychosis......Page 229
Hierarchical Control of Hormones......Page 230
Homeostatic Hormones......Page 231
Gonadal Hormones......Page 232
Anabolic–Androgenic Steroids......Page 233
Glucocorticoids and Stress......Page 234
Ending a Stress Response......Page 235
SUMMARY......Page 237
KEY TERMS......Page 238
CHAPTER 7 How Do We Study the Brain’s Structure and Functions?......Page 239
RESEARCH FOCUS 7-1 Tuning In to Language......Page 240
Linking Neuroanatomy and Behavior......Page 241
Methods of Behavioral Neuroscience......Page 243
Manipulating and Measuring Brain–Behavior Interactions......Page 247
7-2 Measuring the Brain’s Electrical Activity......Page 251
EEG Recordings of Graded Potentials......Page 252
Mapping Brain Function with Event-Related Potentials......Page 253
Magnetoencephalography......Page 254
Recording Action Potentials from Single Cells......Page 255
7-3 Static Imaging Techniques: CT and MRI......Page 256
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging......Page 259
Positron Emission Tomography......Page 260
Optical Tomography......Page 262
Measuring the Brain’s Chemistry......Page 263
Measuring Genes in Brain and Behavior......Page 264
CLINICAL FOCUS 7-3 Cannabis Use, Psychosis, and Genetics......Page 265
7-6 Comparing Neuroscience Research Methods......Page 267
Benefits of Creating Animal Models of Disease......Page 268
RESEARCH FOCUS 7.4 Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder......Page 269
SUMMARY......Page 271
KEY TERMS......Page 272
CHAPTER 8 How Does the Nervous System Develop and Adapt?......Page 273
RESEARCH FOCUS 8-1 Linking Serotonin to SIDS......Page 274
Correlating Brain Structure and Behavior......Page 275
8-2 Neurobiology of Development......Page 276
Gross Development of the Human Nervous System......Page 277
Origins of Neurons and Glia......Page 279
Growth and Development of Neurons......Page 281
CLINICAL FOCUS 8-2 Autism Spectrum Disorder......Page 284
Unique Aspects of Frontal-Lobe Development......Page 287
Glial Development......Page 288
Motor Behaviors......Page 289
Language Development......Page 290
Development of Problem-Solving Ability......Page 291
Caution about Linking Correlation to Causation......Page 294
Experience and Cortical Organization......Page 295
Experience and Neural Connectivity......Page 297
Critical Periods for Experience and Brain Development......Page 298
Abnormal Experience and Brain Development......Page 299
Hormones and Brain Development......Page 300
CLINICAL FOCUS 8.4 Romanian Orphans......Page 301
Injury and Brain Development......Page 303
Other Kinds of Abnormal Brain Development......Page 304
Developmental Disability......Page 305
CLINICAL FOCUS 8.5 Schizophrenia......Page 306
8-5 How Does Any of Us Develop a Normal Brain?......Page 307
KEY TERMS......Page 308
CHAPTER 9 How Do We Sense, Perceive, and See the World?......Page 309
CLINICAL FOCUS 9-1 Migraines and a Case of Blindsight......Page 310
Sensory Receptors......Page 311
Sensory Coding and Representation......Page 313
Perception......Page 314
Structure of the Retina......Page 315
THE BASICS Visible Light and the Structure of the Eye......Page 316
Photoreceptors......Page 319
CLINICAL FOCUS 9-2 Visual Illuminance......Page 320
Retinal-Neuron Types......Page 321
Visual Pathways......Page 322
Dorsal and Ventral Visual Streams......Page 324
Coding Location in the Retina......Page 328
Location in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus and Region V1......Page 329
Visual Corpus Callosum......Page 330
Seeing Shape......Page 331
Seeing Color......Page 337
RESEARCH FOCUS 9-3 Color-Deficient Vision......Page 338
Neuronal Activity in the Dorsal Stream......Page 340
Injury to the Visual Pathway Leading to the Cortex......Page 341
CLINICAL FOCUS 9-4 Carbon Monoxide Poisoning......Page 342
Injury to the “How” Pathway......Page 344
SUMMARY......Page 345
KEY TERMS......Page 346
CHAPTER 10 How Do We Hear, Speak, and Make Music?......Page 347
RESEARCH FOCUS 10-1 Evolution of Language and Music......Page 348
Physical Properties of Sound Waves......Page 349
Properties of Language and Music As Sounds......Page 353
Structure of the Ear......Page 355
Auditory Receptors......Page 358
Pathways to the Auditory Cortex......Page 359
Auditory Cortex......Page 360
RESEARCH FOCUS 10-2 Seeing with Sound......Page 361
Hearing Pitch......Page 362
Detecting Patterns in Sound......Page 364
10-4 Anatomy of Language and Music......Page 365
Processing Language......Page 366
CLINICAL FOCUS 10-3 Left-Hemisphere Dysfunction......Page 370
CLINICAL FOCUS 10-4 Arteriovenous Malformations......Page 372
CLINICAL FOCUS 10-5 Cerebral Aneurysms......Page 373
RESEARCH FOCUS 10-6 The Brain’s Music System......Page 374
Birdsong......Page 376
Echolocation in Bats......Page 378
SUMMARY......Page 379
KEY TERMS......Page 380
CHAPTER 11 How Does the Nervous System Respond to Stimulation and Produce Movement?......Page 381
RESEARCH FOCUS 11-1 Neuroprosthetics......Page 382
11-1 Hierarchy of Movement Control......Page 383
THE BASICS Relating the Somatosensory and Motor Systems......Page 384
Forebrain and Initiation of Movement......Page 386
Brainstem and Species-Typical Movement......Page 388
CLINICAL FOCUS 11-2 Cerebral Palsy......Page 390
Spinal Cord and Execution of Movement......Page 391
CLINICAL FOCUS 11-3 Spinal-Cord Injury......Page 392
Motor Cortex......Page 393
Motor Cortex and Skilled Movement......Page 395
Plasticity in the Motor Cortex......Page 396
Corticospinal Tracts......Page 397
Motor Neurons......Page 398
Control of Muscles......Page 399
Basal Ganglia and Movement Force......Page 400
CLINICAL FOCUS 11-4 Tourette’s Syndrome......Page 402
Cerebellum and Movement Skill......Page 403
Somatosensory Receptors and Perception......Page 406
Dorsal-Root Ganglion Neurons......Page 408
Somatosensory Pathways to the Brain......Page 410
Feeling and Treating Pain......Page 412
RESEARCH FOCUS 11-5 Phantom-Limb Pain......Page 413
Vestibular System and Balance......Page 416
Somatosensory Homunculus......Page 418
Effects of Damage to the Somatosensory Cortex......Page 420
Somatosensory Cortex and Complex Movement......Page 422
SUMMARY......Page 423
KEY TERMS......Page 424
CHAPTER 12 What Causes Emotional and Motivated Behavior?......Page 425
RESEARCH FOCUSPain of Rejection......Page 426
12-1 Identifying the Causes of Behavior......Page 427
Behavior for Brain Maintenance......Page 428
12-2 Chemical Senses......Page 429
Olfaction......Page 430
Gustation......Page 432
Evolutionary Influences on Behavior......Page 434
Environmental Influences on Behavior......Page 436
Inferring Purpose in Behavior: To Know a Fly......Page 438
Regulatory and Nonregulatory Behavior......Page 439
Regulatory Function of the Hypothalamic Circuit......Page 440
Organizing Function of the Limbic Circuit......Page 445
Executive Function of the Frontal Lobes......Page 447
CLINICAL FOCUS 12-2 Agenesis of the Frontal Lobes......Page 449
Stimulating and Expressing Emotion......Page 450
Amygdala and Emotional Behavior......Page 451
Prefrontal Cortex and Emotional Behavior......Page 452
Emotional Disorders......Page 453
CLINICAL FOCUS 12-3 Anxiety Disorders......Page 454
12-5 Control of Regulatory and Nonregulatory Behavior......Page 455
Controlling Eating......Page 456
CLINICAL FOCUS 12-4 Weight-Loss Strategies......Page 457
Controlling Drinking......Page 460
Controlling Sexual Behavior......Page 461
CLINICAL FOCUS 12-5 Androgen-Insensitivity Syndrome and the Androgenital Syndrome......Page 463
Sexual Orientation, Sexual Identity, and Brain Organization......Page 464
Cognitive Influences on Sexual Behavior......Page 465
12-6 Reward......Page 466
SUMMARY......Page 469
KEY TERMS......Page 470
CHAPTER 13 Why Do We Sleepand Dream?......Page 471
13-1 A Clock for All Seasons......Page 472
Origins of Biological Rhythms......Page 473
Biological Rhythms......Page 474
Free-Running Rhythms......Page 475
Zeitgebers......Page 477
CLINICAL FOCUS 13-2 Seasonal Affective Disorder......Page 478
Suprachiasmatic Rhythms......Page 480
Keeping Time......Page 481
Pacemaking Circadian Rhythms......Page 483
Pacemaking Circannual Rhythms......Page 484
Cognitive and Emotional Rhythms......Page 485
13-3 Sleep Stages and Dreaming......Page 486
Stages of Waking and Sleeping......Page 487
A Typical Night’s Sleep......Page 488
Contrasting NREM Sleep and REM Sleep......Page 489
CLINICAL FOCUS 13-4 Restless Legs Syndrome......Page 490
Dreaming......Page 491
What We Dream About......Page 492
13-4 What Does Sleep Accomplish?......Page 494
Sleep As a Biological Adaptation......Page 495
Sleep As a Restorative Process......Page 496
Sleep and Memory Storage......Page 497
Reticular Activating System and Sleep......Page 500
Neural Basis of EEG Changes Associated with Waking......Page 501
Neural Basis of REM Sleep......Page 502
Disorders of Non-REM Sleep......Page 503
Disorders of REM Sleep......Page 504
CLINICAL FOCUS 13-5 Sleep Apnea......Page 505
SUMMARY......Page 507
KEY TERMS......Page 508
CHAPTER 14 How Do We Learn and Remember?......Page 509
CLINICAL FOCUS 14-1 Remediating Dyslexia......Page 510
Studying Learning and Memory in the Laboratory......Page 511
Two Categories of Memory......Page 513
What Makes Explicit and Implicit Memory Different?......Page 515
What Is Special about Personal Memories?......Page 516
Disconnecting Explicit Memory......Page 518
Disconnecting Implicit Memory......Page 519
CLINICAL FOCUS 14-2 Patient Boswell’s Amnesia......Page 520
Neural Circuit for Explicit Memories......Page 521
CLINICAL FOCUS 14-3 Alzheimer’s Disease......Page 522
CLINICAL FOCUS 14-4 Korsakoff’s Syndrome......Page 526
Consolidation of Explicit Memories......Page 527
Neural Circuit for Emotional Memories......Page 528
Long-Term Potentiation......Page 530
Measuring Synaptic Change......Page 532
Enriched Experience and Plasticity......Page 534
Sensory or Motor Training and Plasticity......Page 535
Experience-Dependent Change in the Human Brain......Page 538
Plasticity, Hormones, Trophic Factors, and Drugs......Page 540
Some Guiding Principles of Brain Plasticity......Page 543
14-5 Recovery from Brain Injury......Page 544
Three-Legged Cat Solution......Page 545
Lost-Neuron-Replacement Solution......Page 546
SUMMARY......Page 549
KEY TERMS......Page 550
CHAPTER 15 How Doesthe Brain Think?......Page 551
RESEARCH FOCUS 15-1 Split Brain......Page 552
Characteristics of Human Thought......Page 553
Neural Unit of Thought......Page 554
COMPARATIVE FOCUS 15-2 Animal Intelligence......Page 555
15-2 Cognition and the Association Cortex......Page 558
Multisensory Integration......Page 559
Spatial Cognition......Page 560
Attention......Page 561
Planning......Page 563
Imitation and Understanding......Page 564
RESEARCH FOCUS 15-2 Consequences of Mirror-Neuron Dysfunction......Page 565
Mapping the Brain......Page 566
CLINICAL FOCUS 15-4 Neuropsychological Assessment......Page 567
Social Neuroscience......Page 569
Neuroeconomics......Page 571
Functional Asymmetry in Neurological Patients......Page 572
Functional Asymmetry in the Normal Brain......Page 574
Functional Asymmetry in the Split Brain......Page 575
Explaining Cerebral Asymmetry......Page 577
Left Hemisphere, Language, and Thought......Page 578
Sex Differences in Cognitive Organization......Page 579
Handedness and Cognitive Organization......Page 582
CLINICAL FOCUS 15-5 Sodium Amobarbital Test......Page 583
CLINICAL FOCUS 15-6 A Case of Synesthesia......Page 584
Concept of General Intelligence......Page 585
Multiple Intelligences......Page 586
Divergent and Convergent Intelligence......Page 587
Intelligence, Heredity, Epigenetics, and the Synapse......Page 588
Why Are We Conscious?......Page 589
What Is the Neural Basis of Consciousness?......Page 590
SUMMARY......Page 591
KEY TERMS......Page 592
CHAPTER 16 What Happens When the Brain Misbehaves?......Page 593
RESEARCH FOCUS 16-1 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder......Page 594
Causes of Abnormal Behavior......Page 596
Investigating the Neurobiology of Behavioral Disorders......Page 597
Identifying and Classifying Behavioral Disorders......Page 600
Treatments for Disorders......Page 602
RESEARCH FOCUS 16-2 Treating Behavioral Disorders with TMS......Page 605
Traumatic Brain Injury......Page 609
CLINICAL FOCUS 16-3 Concussion......Page 610
Stroke......Page 612
Epilepsy......Page 613
Multiple Sclerosis......Page 615
Neurodegenerative Disorders......Page 617
Are Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s Aspects of One Disease?......Page 622
Age-Related Cognitive Loss......Page 623
16-4 Understanding and Treating Behavioral Disorders......Page 624
Psychotic Disorders......Page 625
Mood Disorders......Page 627
RESEARCH FOCUS 16-4 Antidepressant Action and Brain Repair......Page 629
Anxiety Disorders......Page 630
SUMMARY......Page 631
KEY TERMS......Page 632
ANSWERS TO SECTION REVIEUW SELF-TESTS......Page 633
GLOSSARY......Page 641
REFERENCES......Page 651
NAME INDEX......Page 663
SUBJECT INDEX......Page 667