Amnesty for Crimes against Humanity under International Law

Contents\r......Page 6
Preface......Page 12
Abbreviations......Page 14
Introduction......Page 16
Setting of the Book......Page 20
Scope and Limits of the Book......Page 22
Meaning......Page 24
Forms......Page 27
Purpose of Amnesty......Page 28
Amnesty in Pre-World War II Conflicts......Page 30
Amnesty in Connection with World War II......Page 35
Amnesty in Immediate Post-World War II Conflicts......Page 36
Status of Amnesty Under the Laws and Customs of War Before and After 1945......Page 37
Justification or Motive for Amnesty......Page 39
Amnesty in International Peace Treaties......Page 42
Amnesty in Domestic Instruments......Page 44
Derogatory Effects......Page 46
Procedural Effects......Page 47
Critics of Amnesty......Page 49
Summary......Page 52
Introduction......Page 54
The 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions......Page 55
The Turkish Theatre......Page 58
The German Theatre......Page 59
World War II and the Legal Construction of Crimes against Humanity......Page 61
Background to the Charter......Page 62
Condemnations Immediately Preceding the Adoption of the Charter......Page 64
The Gravity or Seriousness Requirement......Page 68
Scale of the Commission......Page 70
Motives for the Perpetration of Crimes against Humanity......Page 72
Requirement of a Discriminatory Motive......Page 73
Partial Rejection of a Discriminatory Motive......Page 78
Connection to War......Page 79
Justification of the War Connection......Page 80
Decline of the War Connection......Page 82
Criminal Intent or Mens Rea......Page 83
Murder and Extermination......Page 86
Deportation or Forcible Transfer of Population......Page 87
Torture......Page 88
Sexual Crimes......Page 89
Other Inhumane or Inhuman Acts......Page 90
Persecution......Page 91
The Case of Apartheid......Page 92
Summary......Page 94
Introduction......Page 96
Legal Sources of Individual Criminal Liability......Page 97
The Nuremberg Charter as Source of International Obligations......Page 99
Individual Criminal Liability Under the Nuremberg Charter......Page 101
The Progeny of Nuremberg......Page 103
Parameters of Individual Criminal Attribution......Page 106
Participation as Basis of Liability: Extent of Participation......Page 107
Participation by the Commission of a Crime......Page 108
Participation by Complicity in a Crime......Page 109
Ordering......Page 110
Failure to Prevent or Repress the Commission of a Crime......Page 111
Aiding and/or Abetting......Page 112
Incitement......Page 113
Participation by Attempting to Commit a Crime......Page 115
Negation of Individual Criminal Liability......Page 117
Incapacity......Page 118
Self-Defence, Defence of Another Person, Defence of Property......Page 119
Duress or Coercion......Page 120
Additional Grounds for excluding Criminal Liability......Page 121
Exclusion of Jurisdiction Over Persons Under Eighteen......Page 122
Mistake of Fact or Mistake of Law......Page 123
Other Grounds for Excluding Criminal Liability......Page 124
Reprisal......Page 125
Summary......Page 126
Conventional Sources of States\' Duties Under International Law......Page 128
The Four Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols......Page 129
The Genocide Convention......Page 134
The Torture Convention......Page 135
The Apartheid Convention......Page 136
The Rome Statute......Page 137
General Human Rights Conventions......Page 139
The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights......Page 140
The European Convention on Human Rights......Page 142
The American Convention on Human Rights......Page 143
The African Charter on Human and Peoples\' Rights......Page 144
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights......Page 145
Summary......Page 146
De? nition and Content of Practice......Page 147
Whose Practice is Required?......Page 148
Quantity of Practice......Page 149
Continuity or Duration of Practice......Page 151
Opinio Juris Sive Necessitatis......Page 152
Evaluation......Page 154
United Nations Resolutions......Page 157
General Assembly Resolutions......Page 158
Security Council Resolutions......Page 161
Decisions of International and National Tribunals......Page 162
Conclusion......Page 163
Introduction......Page 166
Brief History of Apartheid......Page 167
Political Negotiations and Commitment to Amnesty......Page 169
The Indemnity Act of 1990 and the Further Indemnity Act of 1992......Page 171
Amnesty Under the Interim Constitution......Page 173
The Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act 34 of 1995......Page 174
Scope of Amnesty......Page 176
Formal and Procedural Effects......Page 178
The Amnesty Law Before the Supreme Court......Page 180
The Amnesty Law Before the Constitutional Court......Page 182
Limits of the Courts\' Decisions on Amnesty......Page 187
Limited Analysis of International Law......Page 188
Departure from the Courts\' Previous Interpretation of International Law......Page 190
Powers of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission......Page 192
Definitional Limits......Page 193
Summary......Page 197
Introduction......Page 200
The Concept of Delicti Jus Gentium......Page 201
Delicti Jus Gentium and Universal Jurisdiction......Page 204
Crimes against Humanity in Conventional International Law and their consequences on Amnesty......Page 208
The Genocide Convention......Page 209
The Torture Convention......Page 210
The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court......Page 215
Crimes against Humanity Under Customary International Law and Amnesty......Page 224
Doctrine of Jus Cogens......Page 228
Consequences of Jus Cogens Norms......Page 231
Jus Cogens Offences and their Implications on States\' Sovereign discretion to Grant Amnesty......Page 233
Derogations Based on \'Public Emergency\'......Page 236
Derogations Based on Additional Protocol II......Page 238
Summary......Page 241
Synopsis......Page 242
Comments......Page 244
Suggestions......Page 245
To the United Nations......Page 246
To the International criminal Court......Page 247
Bibliography......Page 248
Index......Page 264