All Source Positioning, Navigation, and Timing

All Source Positioning, Navigation, and Timing
	Contents
	Chapter 1
Introduction and Overview
		1.1	Why All Source Positioning, Navigation, and Timing?
		1.2	Complementary PNT Technologies and All Source PNT
		1.3	Generic All Source PNT Architecture
		1.4	Structure of This Book
		References
	Chapter 2
Foundations
		2.1	Introduction
		2.2	Coordinate Frames
		2.3	Mathematical Representation of Attitude and Coordinate Transformations
			2.3.1 Inner and Cross-Product-Related Symbols
			2.3.2 DCM
			2.3.3 Euler Angles
			2.3.4 Rotation Around an Arbitrary Axis
			2.3.5 Quaternions
		2.4	ECI Frame Revisited
			2.4.1 Precession of Earth Axis of Rotation
			2.4.2 Nutation of Earth Rotational Axis
			2.4.3 Standard J2000 ECI to True of Date ECI Transformation
		2.5	Earth Model, Earth Gravity Field Model, and Earth Magnetic Field Model
			2.5.1 Earth Model
			2.5.2 Earth Gravitational Model and World Magnetic Model
			2.5.3 Conversion of the Geodetic Position to the ECEF Position
			2.5.4 Conversion of the ECEF to the Geodetic Position
			2.5.5 Exact Equation-Based Algorithm for the ECEF to Geodetic Conversion
			2.5.6 Earth Gravity Field Model
			2.5.3 Earth Magnetic Field Models
		2.6	Kalman Filters and Variations
			2.6.1 Kalman Filter
			2.6.2 Extended Kalman Filter (EKF)
			2.6.3 Generic Propagation/Prediction/Correction Architecture and UKF/Particle Filters
			2.6.4 Practical Issues in the Application of the Kalman Filters
		References
	Chapter 3
Various Propagation-Based Solutions
		3.1	Propagation Model of Constant and Almost Constant Parameters
			3.1.1 Random Walk and First-Order Markov Process
			3.1.2 Differential and Algebraic Lyapunov Equations
		3.2	Clock and Clock Propagation and Error Models
			3.2.1 Overview
			3.2.2 Time and Frequency Errors, Allan Variance, and Power Spectral Density (PSD)
			3.2.3 Rational Model for Clock Propagation
		3.3	Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) Gyro and Accelerometer Error Parameter Models
		3.4	Attitude Propagation and Error Models
			3.4.1 Angular Velocity and Attitude Kinematics
			3.4.2 Attitude Propagation/Numerical Integration Algorithms
			3.4.3 Euler Angle Attitude Propagation
			3.4.4 Attitude Propagation Error Models
		3.5	Body Frame Speed and Attitude/Heading Sensor-Based Navigation
			3.5.1 Introduction
			3.5.2 Navigation Equations
			3.5.3 Error Models
		3.6	Inertial Navigation and Error Models
			3.6.1 Introduction
			3.6.2 ECI Frame Navigation Equations and Error Models
			3.6.3 ECEF Frame (or Other Earth Fixed Frame) Navigation Equations and Error Equations
			3.6.4 Local-Level Frame Inertial Navigation Equations and Error Equations
		References
	Chapter 4
Various Measurement-Based Solutions
		4.1	Introduction
		4.2	PNT Using Range and Range Rate Measurements
			4.2.1 Two-Way Ranging and Time Transfer
			4.2.2 Simple Range-Based Positioning
			4.2.3 Range-Only Network Collaborative PNT
		4.3	PNT Using Pseudo-Range Measurement
			4.3.1 Synchronized One-Way Ranging (Pseudo-Range) and PNT (GNSS)
			4.3.2 Asynchronous One-Way Ranging (Pseudo-Range) and PNT (SOOP)
		4.4	Position and Attitude Determination Using Angle Measurements
			4.4.1 Introduction
			4.4.2 Attitude Determination Using Angle Measurements
			4.4.3 Position and Attitude Determination from Angle Measurements
		4.5	Generic Terrain Reference
			4.5.1 Simplified Case: The Sensor on the Perfect Platform
			4.5.2 Strapdown Sensors: Earth Gravity Anomaly and Earth Magnetic Field
			4.5.3 Strapdown Sensors: Slant Range Sensor
		4.6	Geo-Referenced Image-Based Navigation: Measurement Equations
			4.6.1 Geo-Referenced Image as Collection of Image Anchor Points
			4.6.2 Measurement Model for Image Anchor Points
		References
	Chapter 5
All Source PNT Solution: Integration Through Kalman Filters
		5.1	Introduction
		5.2	Kalman Filter and All Source PNT Algorithm Architecture
		5.3	Fault and Threat Management Architecture
			5.3.1 PFA and PMD
			5.3.2 
Reducing Both PFA and PMA at the Same Time by the Persistency Test
			5.3.3 Containment Versus Response
			5.3.4 Fault Detection, Containment, Isolation, and Response at Each of the Four Levels
		5.4	Steps to Build an All Source PNT System
		References
	Chapter 6
Integrated Clock
		6.1	Introduction
		6.2	Architecture
		6.3	Propagation Solution and Linearized Error Model
		6.4	Updates for Integrated Clock
		6.5	Integrated Clock Simulation Example
		References
	Chapter 7
Spacecraft Attitude Determination
		7.1	Introduction
		7.2	Stellar Inertial Attitude Determination (SIAD)
			7.2.1 System Concept
			7.2.2 The SIAD Architecture
			7.2.3 Propagation Algorithms and Error Models
			7.2.4 Measurement Equations and Error Models
			7.2.5 Direct Star Identification and Star-Catalog Near-Neighbor Criteria
			7.2.6 Aberration Error Correction
			7.2.7 SAA Algorithm: An Example
			7.2.8 Star Catalog
			7.2.9 Star-Tracker Orientation and Configuration Considerations
		7.3	Sun Sensor-Based Attitude Determination
			7.3.1 The Concept
			7.3.2 The Sun Sensor as an Additional Sensor for Normal Attitude Determination
			7.3.3 The Sun Sensor for Attitude Determination to Support Sun-Pointing and Sun Acquisition
		7.4	GPS Carrier-Phase-Based Attitude Determination
			7.4.1 Introduction
			7.4.2 Architecture
			7.4.3 Attitude Initialization and Initial Ambiguity Resolution
			7.4.4 GPS Carrier-Phase Measurements as Update and Ambiguity Maintenance
		References
	Chapter 8 Orbit Determination
		8.1	Introduction
		8.2	Orbit Determination Architecture
		8.3	Propagation Algorithms and Error Models
		8.4	Measurement Equations and Error Models
			8.4.1 Range Measurement from Ground or Space Objects (Crosslinks)
			8.4.2 Angle Measurement from a Ground Telescope or a Spaceborne {AU: Should this be “Space-Based”?} Camera
			8.4.3 GPS-Based Orbit Determination
		References
	Chapter 9
Terrain Referenced Navigation
		9.1	Introduction
		9.2	TRN Architecture
		9.3	Propagation Algorithms and Error Models
		9.4	Measurement Equations and Error Models
			9.4.1 Baro Altimeter Update
			9.4.2 Radar Altimeter Update
			9.4.3 Slant Range Update
			9.3.4 Simulation Examples
		References
	Chapter 10
Modern Celestial Navigation
		10.1	Introduction
		10.2	Fundamental Principles of Celestial Navigation (and Related Applications)
		10.3	Observation of the Stars and the RSO: Difficulties and Solutions
			10.3.1 Cloud and Cloud Avoidance
			10.3.2 Daytime Star Observations/Day Time Capable Star Tracker
			10.3.3 LEO RSO Observation: Scarcity and Midnight Gap
		10.4	Example Configurations and General Architecture
			10.4.1 Example Designs and Choices of Technology
			10.4.2 General Architecture
		10.5	Propagation Algorithms and Error Models
		10.6	Measurement Equations and Error Models
		10.7	Example Simulation Results
		References
	Chapter 11
Image and Vision-Based Navigation
		11.1	Introduction
		11.2	Image and Vision-Based Navigation Architecture
		11.3	Camera Image Preprocessing Algorithms
			11.3.1 Overview
			11.3.2 Image Intensity Dynamic Range Adjustment and Equalization
			11.3.3 Camera Calibration and Image Correction by Calibration Parameters
		11.4	Map-Based Image and Vision Navigation
			11.4.1 Architecture Variations
			11.4.2 Output Prediction, Registration Matching, and the Correlation Algorithm
			11.4.3 Propagation Algorithms and Error Models
			11.4.4 Measurement Equations and Error Models
		11.5	SLAM-Based Image and Vision Navigation
			11.5.1 The Concept
			11.5.2 EKF-SLAM
		11.6	Visual Odometry
			11.6.1 The Concept
			11.6.2 Deriving Motion Information from Measured Landmarks over Consecutive Frames
			11.6.3 Attitude and Position Propagation Using Visual Odometry
		References
	Chapter 12
Gravity Anomaly and Magnetic Anomaly Referenced Navigation
		12.1	Introduction
		12.2	Generic TRN: Fundamental Performance Drivers
		12.3	Gravimeter, GGI, and Magnetometers
			12.3.1 Gravimeters
			12.3.2 GGI
		12.4	Earth Gravity Anomaly and Magnetic Anomaly Model and Database
			12.4.1 Earth Gravity Field and Gravity Gradient
		12.5	Architecture
		12.6	Propagation Algorithms and Error Models
		12.7	Measurement Equations and Error Models
			12.7.1 Strapdown GGI Update
			12.7.2 Single-Axis Gravity Anomaly Update
			12.7.3 Scalar Magnetometer Update
		12.8	Simulation Examples
		References
	Chapter 13
Collaborative PNT
		13.1	Introduction
		13.2	Collaborative PNT Architecture
			13.2.1 Generic Kalman Filter Architecture for a Network Collaborative Estimator
			13.2.2 Algorithm and Equations for ITNS Extended Kalman Filter
			13.2.3 Algorithm and Equations for the LWIN EKF
			13.2.4 Two Types of Collaborative Measurements
		13.3	Collaborative Time Synchronization and NTP and PTP
		13.4	Collaboration with LOS, AOA, and DOA and Range Measurements
			13.4.1 LWIN Equations
			13.4.2 ITNS Equations
			13.4.3 Linearized Equations
			13.4.4 Integration with Inertial Navigation: The ITNS Approach {AU: Edits correct?}
			13.4.5 Integration with Inertial Navigation: The LWIN Approach
			13.4.6 Simulation Example
		13.5	Collaboration with Range Measurements Only
			13.5.1 Nonlinear and Linearized Measurement Equations
			13.5.2 The ITNS Approach
			13.5.3 IIN: The LWIN Approach
			13.5.4 Range-Only Least Square Solution
			13.5.5 ITNS Approach
			13.5.6 LWIN Approach
		References
	Chapter 14
Signal of Opportunity PNT
		14.1	Introduction
			14.1.1 The Received Signal Strength (RSS)
			14.1.2 The AOA
			14.1.3 TOA
			14.1.4 FOA
			14.1.5 TDOA and FDOA
		14.2	Architecture of TDOA and FDOA SOOP PNT System
		14.3	TDOA and FDOA Measurement by Cross-Correlation
		14.4	Receiver PNT Using TOA Pseudo-Range Measurement Without a Reference Receiver
		14.5	SOOP PNT with a Reference Receiver
		14.6	SOOP PNT Integrated with Inertial and All Source PNT
			14.6.1 INS Nonlinear Algorithm
			14.6.2 Measurement Equations and Error Models
		References
	Chapter 15
Real-Time Systems and the Software Development Approach and Applications to PNT Systems
		15.1	Introduction
		15.2	The Architecture of Real-Time Systems
			15.2.1 What Is Architecture All About?
			15.2.2 System Architecture Development Approach
			15.2.3 Architecture Design Patterns, Tactics, and Examples
		15.3	Open Architecture and Open Architecture Standard
			15.3.1 Overview
			15.3.2 FACE
			15.3.3 VICTORY
			15.3.4 The DoD PNT Architecture Standard (PNTA)
			15.3.5 A Proprietary Vendor’s Approach to Support Open Systems and the Open Standard
		15.4	Real-Time System Quality and Development Process Standard
			15.4.1 Overview
			15.4.2 The DO-178 (DO-178B and DO-178C) Standard
			15.4.3 Mil-STD-2167/Mil-STD-498/IEEE 12207 Standards
			15.4.4 CMMI
			15.4.5 Waterfall Versus Iterative Development Process
		15.5	Simulation, Test, and Verification and Validation (V&V) Approaches
			15.5.1 Overview
			15.5.2 Simulation for Concept Development and V&V
			15.5.3 SITL Simulation and V&V
			15.5.4 PITL and V&V
			15.5.5 HITL V&V
		15.6	Integrated System and Software Engineering and Model-Driven/Model-Based Development
		15.7	Software Reuse and Software Product Lines (SPL)
		References
	List of Acronyms
	About the Author
	Index