Alginate Fibers and Wound Dressings: Seaweed Derived Natural Therapy [Team-IRA]

Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Author Biography
Preface
Chapter 1 The Extraction of Alginate from Brown Seaweeds
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Global Distribution of Brown Seaweeds
	1.3 The Extraction of Alginate from Brown Seaweeds
		1.3.1 General Description of the Extraction Process
		1.3.2 A Comparison of Alginic Acid Method and Calcium Alginate Method
		1.3.3 Process Control
		1.3.4 Key Process Parameters
			1.3.4.1 Size Reduction of Raw Materials
			1.3.4.2 Acid Treatment
			1.3.4.3 Formaldehyde Treatment
			1.3.4.4 Alkaline Extraction
			1.3.4.5 Separation of Alginate from Insoluble Seaweed Residue
	1.4 Ultrapure Alginate
	1.5 Summary
	References
	Further Reading
Chapter 2 Chemical, Physical, and Biological Properties of Alginic Materials
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 The Chemical Structure of Alginic Acid
		2.2.1 Early Studies and Basic Structural Feature
		2.2.2 M/G Ratio and Distribution
		2.2.3 C‐5 Epimerization and Designer Alginate
		2.2.4 Molecular Weight and Distribution
		2.2.5 Chemical Stability
	2.3 Physical Properties of Alginic Materials
	2.4 Viscosity of Alginate Solutions
		2.4.1 Effect of Molecular Weight on Solution Viscosity
		2.4.2 Effect of Concentration on Solution Viscosity
		2.4.3 Effect of Temperature on Solution Viscosity
		2.4.4 Effect of Shear Rate on Solution Viscosity
		2.4.5 Effect of Salt on Solution Viscosity
		2.4.6 Effect of pH on Solution Viscosity
	2.5 Polyelectrolyte Properties
	2.6 The Ion‐Exchange Properties of Alginate
	2.7 Gelling Properties of Alginate
	2.8 Film‐Forming Properties
	2.9 Fiber‐Forming Properties
	2.10 Bioactivities of Alginic Materials
		2.10.1 Enzyme Inhibition Activities of Alginate
		2.10.2 Biocompatibility and Cell Activities of Alginate
	2.11 Summary
	References
Chapter 3 Industrial Applications of Alginic Materials
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Functional Properties of Alginic Material
		3.2.1 Alginate as a Thickening Agent
		3.2.2 Alginate as a Gelling Agent
		3.2.3 Alginate as a Film‐Forming Agent
		3.2.4 Alginate as a Stabilizer
		3.2.5 Alginate for Encapsulation and Immobilization
	3.3 Industrial Applications of Alginate
		3.3.1 Food Ingredients
		3.3.2 Medical and Pharmaceutical Uses
			3.3.2.1 Dental Impression
			3.3.2.2 Therapeutic Cell Entrapment
			3.3.2.3 Controlled Release of Drugs
			3.3.2.4 Alginate Oligoelectrolytes as a Mucin Polymer Network Modifier
			3.3.2.5 Oligoguluronates as Modifiers of Cystic Fibrosis Mucus
		3.3.3 Wound Dressings and Hemostatic Agent
		3.3.4 Immobilization of Biocatalysts
		3.3.5 Controlled Release of Active Agents
		3.3.6 Textile Printing Paste
		3.3.7 Sizing Agent for Paper
		3.3.8 Coating for Welding Rods
		3.3.9 Binders for Fish Feed
		3.3.10 Biostimulants
	3.4 Summary
	References
Chapter 4 The Production of Fibers From Alginate
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 The Properties of Alginate as a Fiber‐Forming Polymer
	4.3 Preparation of the Spinning Solutions
		4.3.1 Molecular Weight of the Alginate Powder
		4.3.2 Concentration of the Spinning Solution
		4.3.3 Temperature of the Spinning Solution
		4.3.4 pH of the Spinning Solution
	4.4 The Production of Calcium Alginate Fibers
	4.5 The Production of Calcium Sodium Alginate Fibers
	4.6 The Production of Sodium Alginate Fibers
	4.7 The Production of Alginic Acid Fibers
	4.8 The Production of Zinc Alginate Fibers
	4.9 The Production of Alginate Fibers Containing Pectin and Carboxymethyl Cellulose
	4.10 The Production of Silver‐Containing Alginate Fibers
	4.11 The Production of Other Novel Alginate Fibers
	4.12 Historical Development of Alginate Fibers
	4.13 Summary
	References
Chapter 5 Ion‐Exchange and Gel‐Forming Properties of Alginate Fibers
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Characterization Methods for Ion Exchange and Gel Forming Properties
	5.3 Ion‐Exchange Properties of Alginate Fibers
		5.3.1 Ion‐Exchange Between Calcium Alginate Fibers and Sodium Ions
		5.3.2 Ion‐Exchange Between Alginate Fibers and Zinc Ions
		5.3.3 Ion‐Exchange Between Alginate Fibers and Copper Ions
	5.4 Gelling Properties of Alginate Fibers
	5.5 Summary
	References
Chapter 6 Applications of Alginate Fibers as Smart Woundcare Materials
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Functional Requirements of the Wound Dressings
	6.3 Modern Advanced Wound Dressings
		6.3.1 Chitin and Chitosan Fibers and Wound Dressings
		6.3.2 Superabsorbent Cellulosic Fibers
		6.3.3 Polyurethane Film and Foam
		6.3.4 Hydrogels
		6.3.5 Hydrocolloids
		6.3.6 Activated Carbon
		6.3.7 Low Adherent Dressings
		6.3.8 Composite Wound Care Products
		6.3.9 Antimicrobial Wound Dressings
		6.3.10 Interactive Dressings
		6.3.11 Tissue‐Engineered “Skin Equivalents”
		6.3.12 Cell‐Containing Matrices
	6.4 Applications of Alginate Fibers in Functional Wound Dressings
	6.5 Development of Alginate Wound Dressings
	6.6 Summary
	References
	Further Reading
Chapter 7 Absorption and Interactive Properties of Alginate Wound Dressings
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Characterization Methods
		7.2.1 Test on Absorbency
		7.2.2 Fiber Calcium and Sodium Contents
		7.2.3 Gel Swelling
		7.2.4 Wet Integrity
		7.2.5 Wicking Behavior
		7.2.6 Dry and Wet Strength
	7.3 Absorption of Wound Fluid by Alginate‐Based Wound Dressings
		7.3.1 Absorption Mechanism of Alginate Wound Dressings
		7.3.2 Absorbency of the Various Types of Alginate Wound Dressings
		7.3.3 Fluid Retention Between Fibers and Inside Fibers
		7.3.4 A Comparison of Absorption Properties Between Alginate Felt and Rope
		7.3.5 Effect of Sterilization on the Absorption Properties of Alginate Dressings
		7.3.6 Effect of Guluronate and Mannuronate Contents
		7.3.7 Effect of Calcium and Sodium Contents
		7.3.8 Effect of Nonwoven Structures
		7.3.9 Effect of Adding CMC Into the Alginate Fibers
		7.3.10 Wicking of Fluid
		7.3.11 Dry and Wet Strength
	7.4 Interactive Properties of Alginate Wound Dressings
		7.4.1 Interactive Moisture Handling Properties of Alginate Wound Dressings
		7.4.2 Biologically Interactive Properties of Alginate Wound Dressings
		7.4.3 Enzyme Inhibition Properties of Alginate Wound Dressings
	7.5 Summary
	References
Chapter 8 Clinical Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Biocompatibility and Bioactivities of Alginate Wound Dressings
	8.3 Wound Healing Mechanisms of Alginate Wound Dressings
	8.4 Clinical Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings
		8.4.1 Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings in Pressure Ulcers
		8.4.2 Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings in Leg Ulcers
		8.4.3 Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings in Diabetic Foot Ulcers
		8.4.4 Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings in Burn Wounds and Donor Sites
		8.4.5 Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings as a Hemostatic Agent for Bleeding Wounds
		8.4.6 Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings in Surgical Wounds
		8.4.7 Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings in Nose Surgery
		8.4.8 Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings in Anal Fistula Surgery
		8.4.9 Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings in Cavity Wounds
		8.4.10 Applications of Alginate‐Based Composite Wound Dressings
	8.5 Main Properties of Alginate Wound Dressings
		8.5.1 Wound‐Healing Promotion
		8.5.2 The Hemostatic Properties of Alginate Wound Dressing
		8.5.3 Pain Relief Properties of Alginate Wound Dressing
		8.5.4 The Antimicrobial Properties of Alginate Wound Dressing
		8.5.5 Alginate Wound Dressings as Cavity Filler
		8.5.6 Cost‐Effectiveness of Alginate Wound Dressings
	8.6 Summary
	References
Chapter 9 Functional Modifications of Alginate Fibers and Wound Dressings
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Chemical Modification of Alginic Acid
		9.2.1 Chemical Modification of the Hydroxyl Groups
			9.2.1.1 Oxidation
			9.2.1.2 Reductive‐Amination of Oxidized Alginate
			9.2.1.3 Sulfation
			9.2.1.4 Cyclodextrin‐Linked Alginate
			9.2.1.5 Acetylation of Alginate
			9.2.1.6 Phosphorylation of Alginates
		9.2.2 Chemical Modification of the Carboxyl Groups
			9.2.2.1 Esterification
			9.2.2.2 Amidation
		9.2.3 Other Chemical Modifications
			9.2.3.1 Organic Soluble Derivative of Alginate
			9.2.3.2 Attachment of Cell Signaling Molecules
			9.2.3.3 Covalent Cross‐linking of Alginates
			9.2.3.4 Graft Copolymerization of Alginates
	9.3 Innovations in the Fiber‐Making Process
		9.3.1 The Production of Alginate Fibers Containing Metal Ions and Inorganic Compounds
		9.3.2 The Production of Polyblend Fibers of Alginate and Other Polymers
		9.3.3 The Production of Alginate Fibers Through Electrospinning
		9.3.4 The Production of Alginate Fibers Containing Drugs
		9.3.5 The Production of Alginate and Chitosan Composite Fibers
	9.4 Summary
	References
Chapter 10 Silver‐Containing Alginate Fibers and Wound Dressings
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Antimicrobial Efficacy of Silver
	10.3 Development of Silver‐Containing Wound Dressings
	10.4 Applications of Silver in Alginate Fibers and Wound Dressings
		10.4.1 Types of Silver Compounds Used in Wound Dressings
		10.4.2 Methods for Adding Silver to Wound Dressings
		10.4.3 Examples of Silver‐Containing Wound Dressings
			10.4.3.1 Acticoat from Smith & Nephew
			10.4.3.2 Silvercel from Johnson & Johnson
			10.4.3.3 Aquacel Ag from ConvaTec
			10.4.3.4 Contreet Foam from Coloplast
			10.4.3.5 Silverlon from Argentum Medical
			10.4.3.6 SilvaSorb from Medline
			10.4.3.7 Urgotul SSD from Laboratoires URGO
			10.4.3.8 Actisorb Silver 220 from Johnson & Johnson
			10.4.3.9 Microbisan from Lendell Manufacturing Inc.
		10.4.4 Differences Between Silver‐Containing Wound Dressings
			10.4.4.1 Different Silver Compounds
			10.4.4.2 Different Contact Areas
			10.4.4.3 Different Absorption Capacities
	10.5 Preparation of Silver‐Containing Alginate Fibers and Wound Dressings
		10.5.1 The Addition of Silver Into Alginate Fibers Through Chemical Reaction
		10.5.2 The Addition of Silver Into Alginate Fibers Through Blending
	10.6 Release of Silver Ions from Silver‐Containing Alginate Fibers
	10.7 The Antimicrobial Effect of Silver‐Containing Alginate Fibers and Wound Dressings
	10.8 Properties and Applications of Silver‐Containing Alginate Wound Dressings
		10.8.1 Wound Healing Properties of Silver
		10.8.2 The Release of Silver from Silver‐Containing Wound Dressings
	10.9 Test Methods for Assessing the Antimicrobial Properties of the Silver Dressing
		10.9.1 Zone of Inhibition
		10.9.2 Challenge Testing
		10.9.3 Microbial Transmission Test
	10.10 In Vitro and In Vivo Findings of the Clinical Benefits of Silver in Wound Healing
	10.11 Local and Systemic Toxicity of Silver in Wound Healing
	10.12 Clinical Efficacy of the Silver‐Containing Dressings
	10.13 Summary
	References
A Appendix A: List of Silver Containing Wound Dressings
B Appendix B: Answers to Commonly Asked Questions About Alginate Wound Dressings
	B.1 What Are Alginic Acid, Sodium Alginate, and Calcium Alginate?
	B.2 What Do M and G Mean With Alginate Fibers and Wound Dressings?
	B.3 What Are the Differences Between Alginate Wound Dressing and Calcium Alginate Wound Dressing?
	B.4 How Can Calcium Alginate Dressing Form Hydrogel on Contact With Wound Exudate?
	B.5 What Role Does Alginate Wound Dressings Play in “Moist Healing”?
	B.6 What Are the Main Applications of Alginate Wound Dressings?
	B.7 What Is the Absorption Mechanism of Alginate Wound Dressing?
	B.8 What Is the Reason That Calcium Alginate Fibers Do Not Gel in Pure Water?
	B.9 What Are the Differences Between the Absorption of Wound Exudate by Cotton Gauze and Alginate Wound Dressings?
	B.10 What Are the Differences Between High G and High M Alginate Fibers When They Are Applied on Exuding Wounds?
	B.11 Can Sodium Alginate Be Absorbed by the Body When Calcium Alginate Fibers Are Converted Into Sodium Alginate Upon Contact With Wound Exudate?
	B.12 Alginate Wound Dressings Are Divided Into Wet Integral and Wet Dispersible, What Does These Two Types Mean?
	B.13 How Can Alginate Wound Dressings Reduce Pain?
	B.14 Are There Any Inappropriate Consequences for the Residue Alginate Fibers Left on the Wound Surface?
	B.15 Are There Any Differences Between the Alginate Wound Dressings Under Different Brands?
	B.16 In the Manufacturing Processes, What Do Nip Rolling, Needle Punching, and Freeze Drying Mean?
	B.17 Can Alginate Wound Dressings Be Used in Combination With Topical Medicines Such as Anti‐inflammatory Drugs Like Iodine?
	B.18 Can Alginate Wound Dressings Be Used on Infected Wounds?
	B.19 Can Alginate Wound Dressings Be Cut Into Pieces Before Being Applied to Wounds?
	B.20 What Should Be Done When Alginate Wound Dressings Adhere to the Wound Surface?
	B.21 Some Patients Experience Granulation Edema When Applied With Alginate Wound Dressings, Is This Related to the Release of Calcium Ions by the Dressing?
	B.22 What Are the Clinical Efficacy of Alginate Wound Dressings When Used for Pressure Sore Wounds?
	B.23 What Are the Clinical Efficacy of Alginate Wound Dressings When Used for Leg Ulcer Wounds?
	B.24 What Are the Clinical Efficacy of Alginate Wound Dressings When Used for Diabetic Foot Ulcer Wounds?
	B.25 What Are the Clinical Efficacy of Alginate Wound Dressings When Used for Burn Wounds?
	B.26 What Are the Clinical Efficacy of Alginate Wound Dressings When Used for Anal Fistula Wounds?
	B.27 Does Alginate Wound Dressing Possess Hemostatic Properties?
	B.28 Where Are the Seaweeds Used in the Production of Alginate Wound Dressings Come From?
Index
EULA