Algae

Cover
Half Title
About the Author
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction
	1.1 What are Algae and Phycology?
	1.2 A Brief History
	1.3 Definitions
	1.4 General Characters of Algae
	1.5 Similarities and Diversities
	Test Your Understanding
	Suggested Readings
Chapter 2: History and Development of Algae
	2.1 Phases of Phycology
	2.2 The First Phase (before 1800 A.D.)
	2.3 The Second Phase (from 1800 to 1880)
	2.4 The Third Phase (from 1881 to 1950)
	2.5 The Fourth (Modern) Phase (from till date)
	2.6 Some Phycologists of Modern Phase
	2.7 Some International Phycological Societies and Journals
	2.8 Scope of Modern Phycology
	2.9 A Note on the Development of Algal Study in India
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	Suggested Readings
Chapter 3: Classification of the Algae
	3.1 What is Classification?
	3.2 Algal Nomenclature
	3.3 Basis of Algal Classification
	3.4 Schools of Thought for Algal Classification
	3.5 Systems of Algal Classification: Always in Changing State
	3.6 Classification before 1800
	3.7 Classification Proposed by W.H. Harvey (1836)
	3.8 Classification Proposed by A.W. Eichler (1886)
	3.9 Classification Proposed by A. Pascher (1914, 1931)
	3.10 Classification Proposed by G.M. Smith (1955)
	3.11 Classification Proposed by F.E. Fritsch (1935, 1945)
	3.12 Classification Proposed by G.F. Papenfuss (1946)
	3.13 Classification Proposed by V.J. Chapman (1962)
	3.14 Classification Proposed by G.W. Prescott (1969)
	3.15 Classification Proposed by F.E. Round (1973)
	3.16 Classification Proposed by H.C. Bold and M.J. Wynne (1978)
	3.17 Classification Proposed by S.P. Parker (1982)
	3.18 Principal Characteristics of Major Algal Classes
	3.19 Characteristics of Some Other Recently Recognised Algal Classes
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	Suggested Readings
Chapter 4: Algal Occurrence
	4.1 Aquatic Algae
	4.2 Terrestrial Algae
	4.3 Lithophytic Algae
	4.4 Halophytic Algae or Euryhaline
	4.5 Episammic Algae or Psammon
	4.6 Epipelic Algae
	4.7 Thermal Algae
	4.8 Cryophytic Algae
	4.9 Epiphytic Algae
	4.10 Endophytic Algae
	4.11 Epizoic and Endozoic Algae
	4.12 Parasitic Algae
	4.13 Planktons
	4.14 Calcifilic Algae
	4.15 Algae In Lichens
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	Suggested Readings
Chapter 5: Cytology of Algae
	5.1 Prokaryotic Cell
	5.2 Eukaryotic Cell
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Chapter 6: Range of Thallus Structure
	6.1 The Range of Morphology
	6.2 Unicellular Motile Forms
	6.3 Unicellular Non-motile Forms
	6.4 Multicellular Flagellated Forms or “Colonial Forms”
	6.5 Multicellular Non-fl agellated Forms or Non-fl agellated Colonies
	6.6 Palmelloid Forms
	6.7 Dendroid Forms
	6.8 Filamentous Forms
	6.9 Heterotrichous Forms
	6.10 Siphonous Forms
	6.11 Uniaxial Forms
	6.12 Multiaxial Forms
	6.13 Parenchymatous Forms
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Chapter 7: Reproduction in Algae
	7.1 Vegetative Reproduction
	7.2 Asexual Reproduction
	7.3 Sexual Reproduction
	7.4 Distribution of Compatible Sexual Potentialities in Algae
	7.5 A Note on Gene Transfer in Cyanophyceae
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Chapter 8: Origin and Evolution of Sex in Algae
	8.1 Sex, Sexual and Asexual Units, and Reproductions
	8.2 Origin of Sex
	8.3 Evolution of Sex
	8.4 Development of Sexuality in Algae
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Chapter 9: Life-cycles in Algae
	9.1 Life-cycle and Its Types in Algae
	9.2 Haplontic Life-cycle
	9.3 Diplontic Life-cycle
	9.4 Diplohaplontic Life-cycle
	9.5 Haplobiontic or Diphasic Life-cycle
	9.6 Haplodiplobiontic or Triphasic Life-cycle
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Chapter 10: Physiology: Inorganic Nutrients, Vitamins and Pheromones in Algae
	10.1 Inorganic Nutrients Required by Algae
	10.2 Carbon
	10.3 Nitrogen
	10.4 Phosphorus
	10.5 Calcium
	10.6 Magnesium
	10.7 Silicon
	10.8 Potassium
	10.9 Sodium
	10.10 Sulphur
	10.11 Iron
	10.12 Manganese
	10.13 Trace Elements
	10.14 Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)
	10.15 Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)
	10.16 Biotin
	10.17 Pheromones in Algae
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Chapter 11: Physiology: Nitrogen Fixation in Algae
	11.1 What is Nitrogen Fixation?
	11.2 Which Organisms can Carry out Nitrogen Fixation?
	11.3 What Does Nitrogen Fixation Require?
	11.4 Nitrogen-fixing Cyanophytes
	11.5 Properties and Activity of Nitrogenase
	11.6 Some Major Steps in Pathway of Nitrogen Fixation
	11.7 Nitrogen Storage in Blue-greens
	11.8 Factors Affecting Nitrogenase Activity
	11.9 Role of Nitrogen-fixing Blue-greens in Rice Fields
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	Suggested Readings
Chapter 12: Physiology: Movements and Rhythm in Algae
	12.1 Movements and Rhythm: What are They?
	12.2 Types of Movements in Algae
	12.3 What Causes Movements in Algae?
	12.4 Phototaxis
	12.5 Movements in Diatoms
	12.6 Movements in Blue-green Algae
	12.7 Photokinesis in Algae
	12.8 Phototropism in Algae
	12.9 Rhythms in Algae
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Chapter 13: Cyanophages
	13.1 What are Cyanophages?
	13.2 Saffermann and Morris’s Terminology of Cyanophages
	13.3 Commonly Attacked Genera of Cyanophyceae
	13.4 Structure of Cyanophage
	13.5 Infection and Replication of Cyanophages
	13.6 Results of the Attack of Cyanophage
	13.7 Physico-chemical Properties of Cyanophage
	13.8 How to Isolate Cyanophages?
	13.9 Uses of Cyanophages
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Chapter 14: Ecology of Algae
	14.1 Habitats
	14.2 Communities
	14.3 Succession
	14.4 Primary Production
	14.5 Phytoplankton
	14.6 Marine Epilithic Algae
	14.7 Marine and Freshwater Algae of Sediments and Sands
	14.8 Soil Algae
	14.9 Algal Ecology at Extreme Temperatures
	14.10 Ecology of Algae in Symbiotic Associations
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	Suggested Readings
Chapter 15: Water Blooms and Red Tides
	15.1 What is a Water Bloom?
	15.2 Which Algae Form Water Blooms?
	15.3 Algae Forming Water Blooms in India
	15.4 Algae Forming Water Blooms Around the World
	15.5 Red Tides
	15.6 Why are Blooms Formed?
	15.7 Utility of Blooms
	15.8 Disadvantages of Blooms
	15.9 How can Blooms be Controlled?
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Chapter 16: Algae in Water Supplies and as Indicators of Water Pollution
	16.1 Importance and Sources of Water
	16.2 Causes of Varied Algal Growth in Different Water Bodies
	16.3 Common Algae Found in Water Supplies
	16.4 Major Problems Due to Algal Growth in Water
	16.5 Algae as Indicators of Water Pollution
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Chapter 17: Control of Algal Nuisance
	17.1 Why do we need to Control Algae?
	17.2 Chemical Methods of Controlling Algae
	17.3 Physical Methods of Controlling Algae
	17.4 Biological Methods of Controlling Algae
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Chapter 18: Toxic Algae
	18.1 What are Toxic Algae?
	18.2 Major Toxic Algal Groups
	18.3 Algae Toxic to Humans
	18.4 Algae Toxic to Animals
	18.5 Groups of Toxins
	18.6 General Symptoms shown by Toxic Algae
	18.7 General Chemistry of Some Toxins
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Chapter 19: Fossil Algae
	19.1 What are Fossils and Fossil Algae?
	19.2 How Old are the Algal Fossils?
	19.3 Some Fossil Records of Cyanophyceae
	19.4 Some Fossil Records of Rhodophyceae
	19.5 Some Fossil Records of Phaeophyceae
	19.6 Some Fossil Records of Bacillariophyceae
	19.7 Some Fossil Records of Chrysophyceae
	19.8 Some Fossil Records of Prymnesiophyceae (= Haptophyceae)
	19.9 Some Fossil Records of Dinophyceae
	19.10 Some Fossil Records of Chlorophyceae
	19.11 Utility of Algal Fossils
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Chapter 20: Methods of Algal Study
	20.1 Observing Algae in the Field
	20.2 Collection of Algae
	20.3 Preservation of Algae
	20.4 Preparation of Herbarium Specimens of Algae
	20.5 Preparation of Temporary Mounts of Algae
	20.6 Some Methods of Preparation of Permanent Algal Slides
	20.7 Preparation of Some Stains and Jellies Used in Studying Algae
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Chapter 21: Laboratory Culture and Commercial Cultivation of Algae
	21.1 Importance of Culture
	21.2 Isolation of Cultures
	21.3 Kinds of Cultures
	21.4 Culture Media
	21.5 Commercial Cultivation of Algae
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Chapter 22: Economic Importance of Algae
	22.1 Algae: Beneficial and Detrimental
	22.2 Algae as Primary Source of Food and Energy
	22.3 Algae as Food
	22.4 Agar
	22.5 Carrageenin
	22.6 Alginates
	22.7 Funori
	22.8 As a Source of Minerals
	22.9 As Fodder or Animal Food
	22.10 Diatomite
	22.11 As Fertilizer
	22.12 Antibiotics and Other Medicines
	22.13 In Biological Research
	22.14 In Sewage Disposal
	22.15 Algae and Land Reclamation
	22.16 Role in Water Supply
	22.17 Death of Fishes and Other Animals
	22.18 Diseases and Death of Human Beings
	22.19 Algae and Water-blooms
	22.20 Parasitic Algae
	22.21 Pollution and Algae
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	Suggested Readings
Chapter 23: Cyanobacteria or Cyanophyceae or Blue-green Algae
	23.1 Nomenclature
	23.2 Genera and Species
	23.3 Are Cyanophyceae Algae?
	23.4 Similarities of Myxophyceae and Bacteria
	23.5 Distinguishing Features
	23.6 Occurrence of Blue-greens
	23.7 Thallus Organization in Blue-green Algae
	23.8 Cell Structure Under Light Microscope
	23.9 Cell Structure Under Electron Microscope
	23.10 Cytokinesis in Blue-green Algae
	23.11 Nitrogen Fixation
	23.12 Heterocyst
	23.13 Classification of Blue-green Algae
	23.14 Order: Chroococcales
	23.15 Family: Chroococcaceae
	23.16 Gloeocapsa
	23.17 Order: Nostocales
	23.18 Family: Oscillatoriaceae
	23.19 Oscillatoria
	23.20 Family: Nostocaceae
	23.21 Nostoc
	23.22 Microcystis
	23.23 Lyngbya
	23.24 Phormidium
	23.25 Cylindrospermum
	23.26 Anabaena
	23.27 Scytonema
	23.28 Tolypothrix
	23.29 Rivularia
	23.30 Gloeotrichia
	23.31 Stigonema
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Chapter 24: Chlorophyceae (Green Algae)
	24.1 Nomenclature
	24.2 Genera and Species
	24.3 Distinguishing Characters
	24.4 Occurrence
	24.5 Cell-structure
	24.6 Range in Thallus Organization
	24.7 Reproduction
	24.8 A note on Economic Importance
	24.9 Phylogeny and Evolutionary Trends
	24.10 Classification
	24.11 Order 1. Volvocales
	24.12 Chlamydomonas
	24.13 Eudorina
	24.14 Pandorina
	24.15 Volvox
	24.16 Order 2. Chlorococcales
	24.17 Chlorella
	24.18 Hydrodictyon
	24.19 Pediastrum
	24.20 Order 3. Ulotrichales
	24.21 Ulothrix
	24.22 Ulva
	24.23 Order 4. Cladophorales
	24.24 Cladophora
	24.25 Order 5. Chaetophorales
	24.26 Fritschiella
	24.27 Draparnaldiopsis
	24.28 Coleochaete
	24.29 Order 6. Oedogoniales
	24.30 Oedogonium
	24.31 Order 7. Conjugales
	24.32 Spirogyra
	24.33 Zygnema
	24.34 Desmids
	24.35 Cosmarium
	24.36 Closterium
	24.37 Order 8. Siphonales
	24.38 Caulerpa
	24.39 Vaucheria
	24.40 Order 9. Charales
	24.41 Chara
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Chapter 25: Xanthophyceae (Yellow-green Algae)
	25.1 Phycological Position
	25.2 General Characters
	25.3 Classification
	25.4 Botrydium
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Chapter 26: Chrysophyceae (Golden-brown Algae)
	26.1 Phycological Position
	26.2 General Characteristics
	26.3 Classification
	26.4 Ochromonas
	26.5 Mallomonas
	26.6 Synura
	26.7 Phaeothamnion
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Chapter 27: Bacillariophy ceae (Diatoms)
	27.1 Phycological Position
	27.2 Distinguishing Characters
	27.3 Classification
	27.4 Occurrence
	27.5 Thallus Structure
	27.6 Reproduction
	27.7 Economic Importance
	27.8 Evolution and Phylogeny
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	Suggested Readings
Chapter 28: Cryptophyceae (Cryptomonads)
	28.1 Phycological Position
	28.2 Some General Characteristics
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Chapter 29: Dinophyceae (Dinofl agellates)
	29.1 Phycological Position and Classification
	29.2 General Characteristics
	29.3 Evolution and Phylogeny of Dinophyceae
	29.4 Dinophysis
	29.5 Noctiluca
	29.6 Peridinium
	29.7 Ceratium
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Chapter 30: Euglenophyceae (Euglenoids)
	30.1 What are Euglenophyceae?
	30.2 Phycological Position and Classification
	30.3 General Characteristics
	30.4 A Note on the Evolution and Phylogeny of Euglenoids
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	Suggested Readings
Chapter 31: Phaeophyceae (Brown Algae)
	31.1 Distinguishing Characters
	31.2 Geographical Distribution of Brown Algae in India
	31.3 Thallus Organization
	31.4 Cell Structure
	31.5 Reproduction
	31.6 Alternation of Generations
	31.7 Classification
	31.8 Ectocarpales
	31.9 Ectocarpus
	31.10 Laminariales
	31.11 Laminaria
	31.12 Sphacelariales
	31.13 Sphacelaria
	31.14 Dictyotales
	31.15 Dictyota
	31.16 Padina
	31.17 Fucales
	31.18 Sargassum
	31.19 Fucus
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Chapter 32: Rhodophyceae (Red Algae)
	32.1 General Characters
	32.2 Occurrence
	32.3 Pigments
	32.4 Food-storage Products
	32.5 Range of Thallus Structure
	32.6 Cell-structure
	32.7 Pit Connections
	32.8 Reproduction
	32.9 Evolution and Phylogeny of Rhodophyceae
	32.10 Resemblances and Differences
	32.11 Classification
	32.12 Differences Between Bangioideae and Florideae
	32.13 Bangioideae and Bangiales
	32.14 Porphyra
	32.15 Compsopogon
	32.16 Subclass Florideae
	32.17 Nemalionales
	32.18 Batrachospermum
	32.19 Nemalion
	32.20 Gelidiales
	32.21 Gelidium
	32.22 Gigartinales
	32.23 Gracilaria
	32.24 Chondrus
	32.25 Rhodymeniales
	32.26 Champia
	32.27 Cryptonemiales
	32.28 Corallina
	32.29 Ceramiales
	32.30 Polysiphonia
	32.31 Ceramium
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	Suggested Readings
Chapter 33: Glossary
	Bibliography
Appendix 1
	Answers to Questions
Appendix 2
	Principal Characteristics of Algal Classes Proposed by Parker (1982)
Index