Aflatoxins in Food: A Recent Perspective

Preface
About the Book
Contents
Contributors
About the Editors
Chapter 1: Aflatoxins: An Introduction
	1.1 History of Aflatoxins
	1.2 Production and Metabolism of Aflatoxins
	1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties of Aflatoxins
	1.4 Toxicological Properties of Aflatoxins
	1.5 Prevalence of Aflatoxins
	1.6 Aflatoxin Regulations
	1.7 Analytical Techniques
	1.8 Prevention and Control of Aflatoxins
		1.8.1 Preventive Approaches
		1.8.2 Decontamination
			1.8.2.1 Physical Methods
			1.8.2.2 Chemical Methods
			1.8.2.3 Biological Methods
	1.9 Concluding Remarks
	References
Chapter 2: Aflatoxin Biosynthesis
	2.1 Biosynthesis
	2.2 Aflatoxin Biosynthesis
	2.3 Aflatoxin Biosynthetic Pathway
		2.3.1 Acetate to Norsolorinic Acid
		2.3.2 Norsolorinic Acid to Averantin
		2.3.3 Averantin to 5'-Hydroxyaverantin
		2.3.4 5′-Hydroxyaverantin to Averufin
		2.3.5 Averufin to Versiconal Hemiacetal Acetate
		2.3.6 Versiconal Hemiacetal Acetate to Versiconal
		2.3.7 Versiconal to Versicolorin B
		2.3.8 Versicolorin B to Versicolorin a
		2.3.9 Versicolorin a to Demethylsterigmatocystin and Versicolorin B to Dihydrodemethylsterigmatocystin
		2.3.10 Demethylsterigmatocystin to Sterigmatocystin and Dihydrodemethylsterigmatocystin to Dihydrosterigmatocystin
		2.3.11 Sterigmatocystin to O-Methylsterigmatocystin and DHST to Dihydro-O-Methylsterigmatocystin
		2.3.12 Formation of Aflatoxin B and Aflatoxin G
		2.3.13 Formation of Aflatoxin M
	2.4 Factors Affecting Aflatoxin Biosynthesis
		2.4.1 Oxidative Stress
		2.4.2 Carbon
		2.4.3 Nitrogen
		2.4.4 pH
		2.4.5 Light
		2.4.6 Temperature
		2.4.7 Water Activity
	2.5 Metabolism of Aflatoxin B1
		2.5.1 Aflatoxin B1–8,9-Epoxide
		2.5.2 AFQ1
		2.5.3 AFP1
		2.5.4 Aflatoxicol
		2.5.5 AFH1
		2.5.6 AFB2a
	2.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 3: Worldwide Prevalence of Aflatoxins in Food and Feed
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 World Population Growth and Food Production Level
	3.3 Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Feed and Food
		3.3.1 Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Cereals
		3.3.2 Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Oil Seeds
		3.3.3 Occurrence of Aflatoxins in Spices
		3.3.4 Occurrence of Aflatoxin in Milk and Dairy Products
	3.4 Aflatoxin Safety Regulation
	3.5 Mycotoxins: Hidden Toxins
	3.6 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 4: Exposure Assessment of Aflatoxins in Humans
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Human Biomonitoring of Aflatoxin Exposure
	4.3 Aflatoxin Biomarkers in Blood
	4.4 Aflatoxin Biomarkers in Urine
	4.5 Aflatoxin Biomarkers in Breast Milk
	4.6 Biomarkers of Aflatoxin Exposure in Hair
	4.7 Analytical Methods to Identify Aflatoxin Biomarkers in Biological Fluids
	4.8 Exposure Assessment Through Dietary Intake
	4.9 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 5: Health Effects of Aflatoxins in Fetus, Infants, and Children
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Health Effects of Aflatoxins in Fetus, Infants, and Children
		5.2.1 Aflatoxin Exposure and Birth Defects
			5.2.1.1 Low Birthweight
			5.2.1.2 Small-for-Gestational Age
			5.2.1.3 Preterm Birth
			5.2.1.4 Possible Mechanisms of Aflatoxin-Induced Birth Defects
		5.2.2 Aflatoxin Exposure and Child Undernutrition
			5.2.2.1 Stunting, Wasting, and Underweight
			5.2.2.2 Severe Acute Malnutrition
			5.2.2.3 Possible Mechanisms of Aflatoxin-Induced Growth Impairment
		5.2.3 Aflatoxin and Immunosuppression
		5.2.4 Aflatoxin Exposure and Hepatic Dysfunction
			5.2.4.1 Liver Cancer
			5.2.4.2 Neonatal Jaundice
			5.2.4.3 Other Hepatic Illnesses
	5.3 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 6: Aflatoxin’s Health Impacts on Adults and Elderly
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Aflatoxin’s Impact on Hepatic Functioning
	6.3 Aflatoxin’s Impact on the Reproductive System
	6.4 Aflatoxin’s Impact on the Urinary System
	6.5 Aflatoxin’s Impact on the Immune System
	6.6 Aflatoxin’s Impact on the Nervous System
	6.7 Summary
	References
Chapter 7: Regulations for Aflatoxins in Developing and Industrialized Economies
	7.1 Mycotoxins
	7.2 Aflatoxins
		7.2.1 Aflatoxin Producers
		7.2.2 Types of Aflatoxins
		7.2.3 Chemistry of Aflatoxins
		7.2.4 Aflatoxin in Food
		7.2.5 Regulations Regarding Aflatoxin
			7.2.5.1 FAO Inquiry Regarding Regulations
			7.2.5.2 Survey’s Results
		7.2.6 Regulations in Specific Regions
			7.2.6.1 Africa
			7.2.6.2 Asia and Oceania
			7.2.6.3 Europe
			7.2.6.4 Latin America
			7.2.6.5 North America
		7.2.7 Worldwide Limitations of Aflatoxins
			7.2.7.1 Aflatoxin B1 Regulations
			7.2.7.2 Total Aflatoxin Regulation in Food
			7.2.7.3 Aflatoxin M1 Regulations
			7.2.7.4 Aflatoxin B1 in Feed
			7.2.7.5 Total Aflatoxin Regulations in Feed
		7.2.8 Aflatoxin Regulation in Rice
			7.2.8.1 Regulations in European Union
			7.2.8.2 Regulations in the United States
			7.2.8.3 Regulations in Asia
		7.2.9 Worldwide Limitations for Other Mycotoxins
			7.2.9.1 Patulin
			7.2.9.2 Ochratoxin A
			7.2.9.3 Zearalenone
			7.2.9.4 Fumonisins
		7.2.10 Harmonized Regulations in the World
			7.2.10.1 ASEAN
			7.2.10.2 MERCOSUR
			7.2.10.3 European Union
			7.2.10.4 Australia and New Zealand
			7.2.10.5 Codex Alimentarius
		7.2.11 Worldwide Review of Aflatoxin Occurrences
			7.2.11.1 Occurrence in Asia
			7.2.11.2 Situation of Aflatoxin in Pakistan
			7.2.11.3 Situation of Aflatoxin in Europe
			7.2.11.4 Situation of African Countries
			7.2.11.5 Situation of America and Latin America
	7.3 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 8: Analytical Methods for Detection and Quantification of Aflatoxins
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Fundamentals of Analytical Methods
	8.3 Sample Extraction and Cleanup for Determination of Aflatoxins
		8.3.1 Liquid–Liquid Extraction
		8.3.2 Solid-Phase Extraction
		8.3.3 Immunoaffinity Columns
		8.3.4 Dispersive Liquid–Liquid Microextraction
		8.3.5 QuEChERS
	8.4 Detection and Quantification of Aflatoxins
		8.4.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography
		8.4.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Fluorescence Detector
		8.4.3 Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Mass Spectrometry Detector
		8.4.4 Screening and Rapid Methods
	8.5 Analytical Method Validation
	8.6 Multiclass-Mycotoxin Methods of Analysis
	8.7 Multi-Residue Methods of Analysis
	8.8 Conclusions
	References
Chapter 9: Removal and Detoxification of Aflatoxins
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Methods of Removal
		9.2.1 Physical Methods
			9.2.1.1 Physical Separation and Cleaning
			9.2.1.2 Heating Treatment and Humidity
			9.2.1.3 Treatment by Thermal Microwave
			9.2.1.4 Irradiation Treatment
			9.2.1.5 Electrolyzed Water (EOW) Treatment
			9.2.1.6 Pulsed Light Technology to Remove AFB1
		9.2.2 Chemical Methods to Remove Aflatoxin
			9.2.2.1 Ammonia Decontamination Treatment
			9.2.2.2 Hydrochloric Acid (HCl) Treatment
			9.2.2.3 Lactic Acid and Citric Acid Treatment
			9.2.2.4 Ozonation Treatment
		9.2.3 Biological Methods to Remove Aflatoxin
			9.2.3.1 Spectrum of Bacteria Present in Soil
			9.2.3.2 Fungi
			9.2.3.3 Yeasts and Lactic Acid Bacteria
			9.2.3.4 Aflatoxin Degradation by Enzymes
			9.2.3.5 Cold Plasma Technology to Remove AFB1
			9.2.3.6 Sorbent Additives for Degradation of AFB1
	9.3 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 10: Physical Decontamination and Degradation of Aflatoxins
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Adsorption
		10.2.1 Separation
		10.2.2 Solvent Extractions
		10.2.3 Mineral Adsorbents
		10.2.4 Magnetic Carbon
	10.3 Thermal Processes
		10.3.1 Cooking
		10.3.2 Roasting
		10.3.3 Baking
		10.3.4 Extrusion
		10.3.5 Microwave
		10.3.6 Infrared
	10.4 Nonthermal Methods
		10.4.1 Radiation
			10.4.1.1 Ionizing
				X-rays
				Ultraviolet Rays
				Gamma Rays
				Electron Beam
				Pulsed Light
			10.4.1.2 Nonionizing
		10.4.2 Cold Plasma
		10.4.3 Electrolyzed Water
		10.4.4 Ozonation
		10.4.5 Pulsed Electric Field
	10.5 Conclusion
	References
Chapter 11: Chemical Degradation of Aflatoxins
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Toxicity and Safety Aspects
	11.3 Use of Chemical Methods for Microbial Inactivation
	11.4 The Use of Chemical Methods for AF Degradation
		11.4.1 Ozone
		11.4.2 Acid and Alkaline Treatment
		11.4.3 Hydrogen Peroxide
		11.4.4 Chlorine Dioxide Gas
		11.4.5 Plant Extracts and their Phytochemicals
		11.4.6 Chemical Methods Applied for AFM1 Degradation
	11.5 Effects of Chemical Methods on Human and Animal Foods
		11.5.1 Ozonation
		11.5.2 Acid and Alkaline Treatment
		11.5.3 Hydrogen Peroxide
		11.5.4 Ammoniation
	11.6 Nanotechnological Methods for AF Mitigation
	11.7 Concluding Remarks and Trends
	References
Chapter 12: Biological Decontamination of Aflatoxins
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Biological Approaches for Aflatoxin Decontamination
	12.3 Aflatoxin Decontamination by Microbial Adsorption
		12.3.1 Lactic Acid Bacteria
		12.3.2 Yeasts
	12.4 Aflatoxin Decontamination by Microbial Degradation
	12.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 13: Climate Change and the Impact on Aflatoxin Contamination in Foods: Where Are We and What Should be Expected?
	13.1 Climate Change and Mycotoxins
	13.2 Impact of Climate on Aflatoxin Production and Food Contamination
		13.2.1 Health Consequences of Exposure to Aflatoxins
		13.2.2 Aflatoxins’ Worldwide Legislation and Notifications
		13.2.3 Aflatoxin Producers and Impact of Environmental Factors
		13.2.4 Impact of Climate Change on Aflatoxin Contamination: Examples of Concern
	13.3 Modelling the Effects of Climate Change Future Scenarios on Mycotoxin Contamination
	13.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
Chapter 14: Aflatoxins: A Brief Summary
	14.1 Aflatoxins: A Brief Summary
	14.2 Recommendations for Management of Aflatoxin Control and Related Health Risks
	14.3 Future Perspectives
	References