Aeronomy of Mars (Astrophysics and Space Science Library, 469)

Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
References
Contents
About the Author
Acronyms
1 Introduction
	References
2 Foundation of Ionospheric Theory
	2.1 Basics of Continuity Equation
	2.2 Definition of Momentum Equation
	2.3 Boundary Conditions
	2.4 Ambipolar Diffusion Equation
	2.5 Eddy Diffusion Equation
	2.6 Basics of Energy Balance
	References
3 Instruments for Ionospheric Measurements on Mars
	3.1 Radio Occultation (RO) Experiment
	3.2 Neutral and Ion Mass Spectrometer (NIMS)
		3.2.1 Retarding Potential Analyzer (RPA)
		3.2.2 Langmuir Probe and Electric Field Instrument (LPEX)
		3.2.3 Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionospheric Sounding (MARSIS)
	References
4 Aeronomy Missions: Exploration to Mars Atmosphere
	4.1 Mariner 6, 7 and 9
	4.2 Mars 2, 3, 4 and 5
	4.3 Viking 1 and 2
	4.4 Mars Global Surveyor (MGS)
	4.5 Mars Express (MEX)
	4.6 Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN)
	4.7 Mangalyaan
	4.8 Emirates Mars Mission (EMM)
	4.9 ExoMars Mission
	References
5 Thermal Structure of Mars Atmosphere
	5.1 Troposphere
	5.2 Stratosphere
	5.3 Mesosphere
	5.4 Thermosphere
	5.5 Exosphere
	References
6 Magnetic Field of Mars
	6.1 Earlier Measurements: Mariner 4, Mars 2 to 7 and Phobos 2
	6.2 Latest Measurements: MGS and MAVEN
	6.3 Induced and Crustal Magnetic Fields
	6.4 Mini-Magnetosphere
	6.5 Global Modeling of Mars Magnetic Field
	References
7 Upper Atmosphere of Mars
	7.1 MAVEN Measurement: Neutral Compositions
	7.2 Atmospheric Waves and Dynamics
	7.3 Photochemical Equilibrium on Mars
	7.4 Upper Atmospheric Modeling
	References
8 Atmospheric Escape from Mars
	8.1 Earlier Measurements: PHOBOS-2
	8.2 Latest Measurements: MEX and MAVEN
	8.3 Thermal Escape Mechanism
	8.4 Non-Thermal Escape Mechanism
	8.5 Modeling of Escape Flux and Density
	References
9 Upper Ionosphere of Mars
	9.1 Photochemical Equilibrium Region
	9.2 Diffusive Equilibrium Region
	9.3 Plasma Transport Processes
	9.4 Early Measurements: Mariner 4, 6, 7 and 9, Mars 4, 5 and Viking 1, 2
	9.5 Latest Measurements: MGS, MEX, MARSIS and MAVEN
	9.6 Solar Zenith Angle Dependence of Mars’ Ionosphere
	References
10 Models of the Martian Ionosphere
	10.1 Boltzmann Transport Model
		10.1.1 Continuity and Momentum Equations
		10.1.2 Energy and Heat Flow Equations
	10.2 Magneto-Hydrodynamic (MHD) Model
	10.3 Hybrid Model
	10.4 Two Stream Method
	10.5 Monte Carlo Model
	10.6 AYS Approach
		10.6.1 Two-Dimensional Yield Spectra
		10.6.2 Three-Dimensional Yield Spectra
		10.6.3 Four-Dimensional Yield Spectra
		10.6.4 Five-Dimensional Yield Spectra
	10.7 Energy Loss Model
	10.8 Meteoroid Ablation Model
		10.8.1 Energy and Momentum Conservation
		10.8.2 Sputtering Mass Loss
		10.8.3 Thermal Heating Mass Loss
	References
11 Solar Flux for Ionospheric Modeling of Mars
	11.1 EUV Flux Measurements: SOHO
	11.2 X-ray Flux Measurements: GOES
	11.3 EUV and X-ray Flux Measurements: SORCE
	11.4 EUV and X-ray Model Flux: SOLAR 2000
	11.5 FISM Model Flux for X-ray Flares
	References
12 Ionization Sources of Upper Ionosphere of Mars
	12.1 Ionization by Solar EUV: F Region Ionosphere
	12.2 Ionization by X-rays: E Region Ionosphere
	12.3 Solar Wind Impact Ionization
	12.4 Dynamics of the Upper Ionosphere
	12.5 Chemistry of the Upper Ionosphere
	12.6 Modeling of the Upper Ionosphere
	References
13 Mars Upper Ionospheric Disturbances
	13.1 Effects of Solar Flares on the Upper Ionosphere
	13.2 Effects of CMEs on the Upper Ionosphere
	13.3 Effects of SEPs on the Upper Ionosphere
	13.4 Effects of ENAs on the Upper Ionosphere
	13.5 Ionospheric Modeling Due to Impact of X-ray Flares
	References
14 Upper Ionosphere of Mars During Low, Medium and High Solar Activity
	14.1 Sunspot and Solar Activity
	14.2 Effects of Solar Activity in the Upper Ionosphere
	14.3 Ionospheric Measurments: Low, Medium and High Solar Activity
	14.4 Ionospheric Modeling: Low, Medium and High Solar Activity
	14.5 Solar Rotation Effects on the Martian Ionosphere
	References
15 Characteristics of Martian Ionopauses
	15.1 Earlier Measurements of Ionopauses
	15.2 Ionopause Measurements from MAVEN
	15.3 Magnetic Pile-Up Boundary
	15.4 Low, Mid and High Altitude Ionopauses
	15.5 Basic Equations for Ionopause Modeling
	References
16 Aurora and Airglow on Mars
	16.1 Discrete Aurora
	16.2 Proton Aurora
	16.3 Diffuse Aurora
	16.4 Dayglow on Mars
	16.5 Nightglow on Mars
	References
17 Middle Ionosphere of Mars
	17.1 MGS Measurements and Meteoric Layer
	17.2 MEX Measurements and Meteoric Layer
	17.3 Meteoric and Atmospheric Ions
	17.4 Meteoroid Flux
	17.5 Meteors at Mars Due to Encounter of Comet C/2013 A1
	17.6 Comet C/2013 A1 Observations for Meteoric Ions
	17.7 Chemistry of Meteoric Ions
	17.8 Meteoric Model
	References
18 Lower Atmosphere of Mars
	18.1 Temperature and Pressure Measurements
	18.2 Neutral Density and Composition
	18.3 Dynamics of the Lower Atmosphere
	18.4 Atmospheric Wind
	18.5 Modeling of the Lower Atmosphere
	References
19 Trace Gases of Mars Atmosphere
	19.1 Ozone
	19.2 Water Vapour
	19.3 Sulfur Dioxide
	19.4 Methane
	19.5 Nitric Oxide
	References
20 Seasonal Variability of Atmospheric Gases
	20.1 Basics of Global Circulation Model (GCM)
	20.2 Ozone Variability
	20.3 Global Mapping of Water Vapour
	20.4 Seasonal Variability of CO2
	20.5 Seasonal Variability of N2, Ar, O2 and CO
	References
21 Infrared Thermal Emissions from Mars Atmosphere
	21.1 PFS Observations
	21.2 PFS Data Analysis
	21.3 Brightness Temperature of Mars
	21.4 Planck Function and Radiance
	21.5 Radiative Transfer Model
	21.6 Modeling of Thermal Emission Spectra
	References
22 Lower Ionosphere of Mars
	22.1 Mars 4 and 5 Measurements
	22.2 Galactic Cosmic Ray (GCR) Ionization
	22.3 Chemistry of the Lower Ionosphere
	22.4 D Layer Ionosphere of Mars
	References
23 Conductivity
	23.1 Ion Conductivity in the Lower Ionosphere
	23.2 Effect of Dust Storm on Conductivity
	23.3 Ion-Dust Model
	23.4 Chemistry of Dusty Ionosphere
	23.5 Atmospheric Electricity
	23.6 Aerosol Charging
	References
24 Dust Storms in the Lower Atmosphere of Mars
	24.1 Infrared Dust Optical Depth: MGS Measurements
	24.2 Infrared Dust Optical Depth: Mars Odyssey Observations
	24.3 Dust Layers in the Martian Atmosphere
	24.4 Characteristics of Dust and Its Size Distributions
	24.5 Effects of Dust in the D Region Ionosphere
	24.6 Density Distribution Model of Aerosol Particles
	References
25 Lightning on Mars
	25.1 SR Model for Lightning on Mars
	25.2 Estimated SR Frequency During Nighttime
	25.3 Search for Martian SR and Its Application
	25.4 SR Dependence with Height
	References
26 Conclusions
	References
Appendix Cross Sections and Chemical Reactions for Ionospheric Modeling of Mars
Appendix A: Photoabsorption Cross Sectionsa (×1018 cm2)
Appendix B: Photoionization Cross Sectionsa (×1018 cm2)
Appendix C: Electron Impact Cross Sectionsb (×1018 cm2)
Appendix D: Elastic Cross Sectionsc (×1018 cm2)
Appendix E: Chemical Reactions for Upper Ionosphere of Mars (Haider et al. 2016)
Appendix F: Chemical Reactions for Lower Ionosphere of Mars (Sheel and Haider 2012)
Appendix G: Chemical Reactions for Dusty Ionosphere of Mars (Haider et al. 2010)
Appendix H: Chemical Reactions for Meteoric Ions
References