Advances in Natural Gas: Formation, Processing, and Applications. Volume 2: Natural Gas Sweetening

Cover
Copyright
Contents
Contributors
About the editors
Preface
Reviewer acknowledgments
Section I Natural gas sweetening concepts
	1---Introduction-to-natural-g_2024_Advances-in-Natural-Gas--Formation--Proce
		1 . Introduction to natural gas sweetening methods and technologies
			1. Introduction
			2. Sweetening techniques
				2.1 Membrane separation
					2.1.1 Knudsen diffusion
					2.1.2 Molecular sieving
					2.1.3 Solution–Diffusion separation
					2.1.4 Surface diffusion
					2.1.5 Capillary condensation
					2.1.6 Types of membranes
				2.2 Absorption
					2.2.1 Amine absorption
					2.2.2 Aqua ammonia process
				2.3 Adsorption
				2.4 Cryogenics
					2.4.1 CryoCell
				2.5 Chemical looping
			3. Selection of the most suitable sweetening technique
			4. Conclusion and future outlooks
			Abbreviations and symbols
			References
	2 . Natural gas sweetening standards, policies, and regulations
		1. Introduction
		2. Environmental policies and regulations
			2.1 Regulating history
			2.2 Air emissions
				2.2.1 H2S and CO2 emission
				2.2.2 Regulations for fugitive emissions
				2.2.3 Regulations for GHGs
				2.2.4 Regulations for venting and flaring
		3. Regulations for controlling emissions from equipment
			3.1 Regulation for centrifugal compressor
			3.2 Regulation for pneumatic controller
			3.3 Regulation for pneumatic pump
		4. Operational and design standards for various sweetening processes
		5. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
	3 . Economic assessments and environmental challenges of natural gas sweetening technologies
		1. Introduction
		2. Methods of economic analysis
			2.1 Cash flow diagram
			2.2 Time value of money
			2.3 Cost of equipment and operation
		3. Techno-economic analysis of natural gas sweetening process
		4. Environmental challenges
		5. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
Section II Absorption techniques for natural gas sweetening
	4---Acid-gases-properties-and-c_2024_Advances-in-Natural-Gas--Formation--Pro
		4 . Acid gases properties and characteristics in companion with natural gas
			1. Introduction
			2. Natural gas origins
			3. Natural gas composition
			4. Removing acid gases from natural gas
			5. Definition of physical and chemical properties
				5.1 Boiling point
				5.2 Melting point
				5.3 Density
				5.4 Vapor density
				5.5 Vapor pressure
				5.6 Viscosity
				5.7 pH
				5.8 Heat of vaporization
				5.9 Ionization potential
			6. Physical and chemical properties of CO2 and H2S
				6.1 Physical properties
				6.2 Chemical properties
			7. Conclusion and future outlooks
			Abbreviations and symbols
			References
	5 . Application of amines for natural gas sweetening
		1. Introduction
		2. Amine-based techniques for acid gas removal
		3. Amine-based absorption process
		4. Current applications and cases
		5. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
	6 . Physical and hybrid solvents for natural gas sweetening: Ethers, pyrrolidone, methanol and other sorbents
		1. Introduction
		2. Physical and hybrid sorbents for NG sweetening
			2.1 Acid gas absorption in amines and alcohols
			2.2 Modified membrane composites for gas sweetening
			2.3 The use of carbonate and aqueous amino acid salts
			2.4 Ionic liquids
			2.5 Methanol
			2.6 The use of polyethylene glycol methyl isopropyl ethers
			2.7 Propylene carbonate
			2.8 The use of NMP
			2.9 Glycerol/glycerine
			2.10 Tetramethylene sulfone/2,3,4,5-tetrahydrothiophene-1,1-dioxide ((CH2)4SO2)
		3. Mechanism of solute take-up by physical and hybrid sorbents
		4. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
	7 . Natural gas sweetening by solvents modified with nanoparticles
		1. Introduction
		2. NG sweetening techniques
			2.1 Absorption process for NG sweetening
			2.2 Adsorption process for NG sweetening
			2.3 Absorbents modified with nanoparticles for NG sweetening
		3. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
	8 . Encapsulated liquid sorbents for sweetening of natural gas
		1. Introduction
		2. Encapsulated liquid sorbents
			2.1 Spray-drying strategy
			2.2 Emulsification strategy
			2.3 In situ and interfacial polymerization strategies
		3. NG sweetening using encapsulated liquids
		4. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
	9 . Cryogenic fractionation for natural gas sweetening
		1. Introduction
		2. Thermodynamic principles of CO2 and CH4 separation
		3. Cryogenic processes for acid gas removal
			3.1 Cryogenic packed bed
			3.2 Cryogenic separation based on multicompression stages with intercoolers
			3.3 External cooling loop cryogenic for CO2 capture
			3.4 Cryogenic liquid
			3.5 Heat exchangers
		4. Current applications and improvements
			4.1 CryoCell process
			4.2 Cryogenic–membrane hybrid system case
		5. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
		Further reading
	10 . Absorption processes for CO2 removal from CO2-rich natural gas
		1. Introduction
			1.1 Advances in the absorption of CO2
			1.2 Natural gas purification and processing
		2. Amine absorption
			2.1 Plant details
			2.2 CO2 separation processes
				2.2.1 CO2 gas separation
				2.2.2 Chemical absorbent
					2.2.2.1 Alkanol amines
					2.2.2.2 Sterically hindered amines
		3. CO2 removal flowsheet
			3.1 Amine absorption
			3.2 Membrane separation
			3.3 Cryogenic distillation
			3.4 Gas pretreatment
			3.5 CO2 removal
			3.6 CO2 compression
			3.7 Gas dehydration
			3.8 Gas conditioning
		4. CO2 absorption plant: Unit operations and parameters
			4.1 Gas pretreatment
			4.2 Absorption column
			4.3 Solvent regeneration
			4.4 CO2 purification
			4.5 CO2 compression
			4.6 Solvent type
			4.7 Gas feed composition
			4.8 Absorption column operating parameters
			4.9 Regeneration column operating parameters
			4.10 Purification parameters
		5. Current applications and cases
		6. Specific characterizations and properties of CO2 absorption
			6.1 Selectivity
			6.2 Solubility
			6.3 Reversibility
			6.4 Temperature dependence
			6.5 Kinetics
			6.6 Reaction byproducts
		7. Novel methods and solvents
			7.1 Ionic liquids
			7.2 Hybrid solvents
			7.3 Nanoparticles
			7.4 Membrane-based absorption
		8. Scales up of the ionic liquid–based technologies
		9. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
Section III Adsorption techniques for natural gas sweetening
	11 . Swing technologies for natural gas sweetening: Pressure, temperature, vacuum, electric, and mixed swing processes
		1. Introduction
			1.1 Natural gas
			1.2 Adsorption
		2. Swing adsorption processes
			2.1 Pressure swing adsorption
				2.1.1 Procedure
				2.1.2 Various parameters affect the PSA process
					2.1.2.1 Effects of the cycle time
					2.1.2.2 The effect of the flow rate
					2.1.2.3 Effect of the pressure
					2.1.2.4 Effect of purge/feed (P/F) ratio
					2.1.2.5 Effects of the adsorbents
						2.1.2.5.1 Zeolite
						2.1.2.5.2 Carbon molecular sieve
						2.1.2.5.3 Metal-organic framework
				2.1.3 Literature
			2.2 Temperature swing adsorption
				2.2.1 Procedure
				2.2.2 Adsorbents in TSA process
				2.2.3 The adsorption of various components using TSA technology
					2.2.3.1 Adsorption of water
					2.2.3.2 Adsorption of heavy hydrocarbons
					2.2.3.3 Adsorption of mercaptans
				2.2.4 The formation of COS during TSA process
				2.2.5 Literature
			2.3 Electric swing adsorption
				2.3.1 Procedure
				2.3.2 ESA electrification step
				2.3.3 Various parameters affect the ESA process
					2.3.3.1 Adsorbent
					2.3.3.2 Voltage
					2.3.3.3 Electric power
					2.3.3.4 Purge gas
				2.3.4 Literature
			2.4 Vacuum swing adsorption
				2.4.1 Procedure
				2.4.2 Various parameters affect the VSA process
					2.4.2.1 Rinse time
					2.4.2.2 Evacuation time
					2.4.2.3 Adsorption time
					2.4.2.4 Feed and rinse flow rates
					2.4.2.5 Operating temperature
					2.4.2.6 Feed concentration
					2.4.2.7 Feed pressure
				2.4.3 Literature
			2.5 Mixed swing adsorption processes
				2.5.1 Temperature–Pressure swing adsorption (TPSA)
					2.5.1.1 Procedure
						2.5.1.1.1 NT-PSA process
						2.5.1.1.2 ET-PSA process
					2.5.1.2 Literature
				2.5.2 Vacuum-electric swing adsorption (VESA)
					2.5.2.1 Procedure
					2.5.2.2 Literature
				2.5.3 Vacuum temperature swing adsorption (VTSA)
					2.5.3.1 Procedure
					2.5.3.2 Literature
				2.5.4 Vacuum pressure swing adsorption (VPSA)
					2.5.4.1 Procedure
					2.5.4.2 Literature
		3. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
	12 . Zeolite sorbents and nanosorbents for natural gas sweetening
		1. Introduction
			1.1 NG constitution
		2. Natural gas purification techniques
			2.1 Elimination of acid gases
				2.1.1 Absorption processes
				2.1.2 Adsorption processes
			2.2 The significance of eliminating H2S gas
			2.3 NG sweetening via zeolite-based adsorbents
				2.3.1 Natural zeolites for acid gas removal
				2.3.2 13X, 4A, and 5A zeolites for acid gas removal
				2.3.3 Zeolite X interchanged by Na and Ca for acid gas removal
				2.3.4 Zeolite Y interchanged by Ce and Cu for acid gas removal
				2.3.5 Zeolite Na-Y interchanged by various metals for acid gas removal
				2.3.6 ZSM-5 and Zeolite-A for acid gas removal
				2.3.7 Zeolite SP-115 changed by Mo, Cu, and Mn for acid gas removal
				2.3.8 Engelhard Titanosilicate zeolite for acid gas removal
				2.3.9 Other zeolites for acid gas removal
		3. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
	13 . Porous metal structures, metal oxides, and silica-based sorbents for natural gas sweetening
		1. Introduction
		2. Metal-based sorbents
			2.1 Metal–organic frameworks
			2.2 Metal oxides
		3. Silica-based sorbents
			3.1 Mesoporous silica structures
			3.2 Zeolites
		4. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
	14 . Natural gas CO2-rich sweetening via adsorption processes
		1. Introduction
		2. Adsorption processes in natural gas sweetening
			2.1 Process description
			2.2 Types of adsorption processes
		3. Adsorbent material selection
			3.1 Zeolites
			3.2 Carbonaceous adsorbents
				3.2.1 Activated carbons
				3.2.2 Molecular sieves
				3.2.3 Activated carbon fibers and carbon-based nanomaterials
			3.3 Metal-organic frameworks
		4. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
Section IV Membrane technology for natural gas sweetening
	15 . Polymeric membranes for natural gas sweetening
		1. Introduction
		2. Fundamentals of polymeric membrane gas separation
			2.1 Mechanism
			2.2 Subclass and fabrication method of polymeric membrane
		3. Ideal membrane
		4. Current application
			4.1 CH4 enrichment
			4.2 Acid gas removal unit
			4.3 Hydrocarbon separations
		5. Challenges
		6. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
	16 . Natural gas sweetening by ionic liquid membranes
		1. Introduction
		2. Ionic liquid membranes
			2.1 Supported ionic liquid membranes
				2.1.1 Preparation methods of SILMs
				2.1.2 Long-term stability SILMs
				2.1.3 Gas transport properties in SILMs
			2.2 Quasi-solidified ionic liquid membranes
				2.2.1 Preparation methods of QSILMs
				2.2.2 Long-term stability QSILMs
			2.3 Poly(ionic liquid) (PIL) membranes
			2.4 Ionic liquid mixed-matrix membranes (IL-MMMs)
			2.5 Membrane contactors using ILs
		3. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
	17 . Application of electrochemical membranes for natural gas sweetening
		1. Introduction
		2. Removal of H2S through an electrochemical membrane separator
		3. Removal of CO2 through an electrochemical membrane separator
		4. Electrode preparation
			4.1 Carbon
			4.2 CoS2
			4.3 Ni
		5. Membrane preparation
		6. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
	18 . Membrane technology for CO2 removal from CO2-rich natural gas
		1. Introduction
		2. Fundamentals of membrane gas separation for CO2 removal
		3. Membrane processes for efficient CO2 removal
			3.1 Hagen–Poiseuille (viscous flow in wide pores)
			3.2 Knudsen diffusion in narrow pores
			3.3 Capillary condensation
			3.4 Molecular sieving
		4. Current application and cases
			4.1 Hydrogen recovery
			4.2 Air purification
			4.3 Purification of natural gas from acid gases
			4.4 Biogas purification
			4.5 CO2 removal
		5. Conclusion and future outlooks
		Abbreviations and symbols
		References
Index
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