Advances in Fisheries Biotechnology

Foreword
Preface
Contents
About the Editors
Abbreviations
1: Aquaculture Productivity Enhancement Through Advanced Technologies
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Transgenesis
		1.2.1 Engineering the Transgene Construct
		1.2.2 Transgene Delivery
			1.2.2.1 Microinjection
			1.2.2.2 Electroporation
			1.2.2.3 Sperm Mediated Gene Transfer
			1.2.2.4 Several Other Methods
		1.2.3 Maintenance of Injected Eggs
		1.2.4 Transgene Integration
		1.2.5 Detection of Integrated Transgene
		1.2.6 Homozygous Transgenic Fish
		1.2.7 Applications of Transgenic Fish
			1.2.7.1 Disease Resistance
			1.2.7.2 Production of Therapeutics for Human Use
			1.2.7.3 Colour Variation in Aquarium Fish Species
			1.2.7.4 Environmental Monitoring and Biosensor
			1.2.7.5 Growth Manipulation
	1.3 Clearance from Regulatory Authorities
	1.4 Gene Editing
	1.5 Genome Editing in Aquaculture Species
		1.5.1 Growth Enhancement
		1.5.2 Colour Modification
		1.5.3 Control of Reproduction
		1.5.4 CRISPR/Cas9 in Shrimp and Oyster
		1.5.5 Disease Resistance
		1.5.6 Clearance from Regulatory Authority
	1.6 Micro RNA
		1.6.1 miRNA Usage, Colour Modulation
		1.6.2 Growth Studies
		1.6.3 Cold Adaptation
		1.6.4 Control of Reproduction
		1.6.5 Clearance from Regulatory Authority
	1.7 Conclusion
	References
2: Indigenous Germplasm as Valued Genetic Resources
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Genetic Resources
	2.3 Indigenous Fish Resources of India
	2.4 Germplasm
	2.5 Genetic Diversity
	2.6 Status of Indigenous Fishes in India
	2.7 Taxon Status
	2.8 Potential Threats
		2.8.1 Introduction of Invasive Species
		2.8.2 Overexploitation
		2.8.3 Other Anthropological Interference
			2.8.3.1 Climate Changes
		2.8.4 Impacts on Indigenous Germplasm
			2.8.4.1 Population Size Changes
		2.8.5 Strategies
			2.8.5.1 Conservation in the Natural Habitat (In Situ)
			2.8.5.2 Replenishing the Degraded Populations
			2.8.5.3 Conservation Strategies Outside Natural Habitats (Ex Situ)
	2.9 Conclusion
	References
3: Applications of Next-Generation Sequencing in Aquaculture and Fisheries
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Fish Migration
	3.3 Growth in Fishes
	3.4 Toxicity
	3.5 Microbiome
	3.6 Sexual Development
	3.7 Conclusion
	References
4: Genome Sequencing in Fishes
	4.1 Introduction
	4.2 Genomics
	4.3 Genome Sequencing Projects
	4.4 Next Generation Sequencing Platforms
	4.5 Fish Genomics
	4.6 Major Fish Genome Sequencing Programs
		4.6.1 Zebrafish (Danio rerio)
		4.6.2 Fugu (Takifugu rubripes)
		4.6.3 Medaka (Oryzias latipes)
		4.6.4 Puffer Fish (Tetraodon nigroviridis)
		4.6.5 Elephant Shark (Callorhinchus milii)
		4.6.6 Common Carp (Cyprinus carpio)
		4.6.7 Coelacanth (Latimeria chalumnae)
		4.6.8 Other Genomes
	4.7 Other Fish Genomic Resources
	4.8 Applications of Genomics
		4.8.1 Molecular Markers in Selection Programs
		4.8.2 Selection for Growth Trait
		4.8.3 Genetic Diversity and Resource Analysis
		4.8.4 Fish Health Management in Aquaculture
		4.8.5 Development of Alternative Feed
		4.8.6 Phylogeny Analysis
	4.9 Fish Genomes Sequencing in India
	4.10 Conclusions
	References
5: Omics in Aquaculture
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Genomics
	5.3 Transcriptomics
	5.4 Metabolomics
	5.5 Proteomics
	5.6 Metagenomics
	5.7 Neurogenomics
	5.8 Pangenomics
	5.9 Epigenomics
	5.10 Lipidomics
	5.11 Glycomics
	5.12 Conclusion
	References
6: Growth Hormone Transgenesis in Aquaculture
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Origin of Growth Hormone Biology in Fish
	6.3 Fish Growth Hormone Signalling
	6.4 Techniques for Transgenesis in Teleosts
	6.5 Impact of GH Transgenes on Teleost Growth
	6.6 Muscle Development in GH Over-Expressing Transgenic Fish
	6.7 IGF Expression Levels in GH Over-Expressing Transgenic Fish
	6.8 Impact of Environmental Factors on Performance of GH-Transgenic Fish
	6.9 Conclusion
	References
7: Genome Editing in Fish Reproduction
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Reproduction
		7.2.1 Gender Identity Systems
		7.2.2 Breeding Performance Systems
		7.2.3 Fertilization and Embryonic Development Systems
		7.2.4 Parental Care Systems
	7.3 General Development of Reproductive Organ in Fish
	7.4 Genome Editing
		7.4.1 Practical Advantages of Genome Editing in Aquaculture
		7.4.2 Types of Genome Editing
			7.4.2.1 Chemical Mutagenesis
			7.4.2.2 Enzymatic Mutagenesis
				Zinc Finger Nuclease (ZFN)
				Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nucleases (TALENs)
				Clustered, Regularly Interspaced, Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-CRISP R-Associated (Cas) Systems (CRISPR/Cas9)
				Pentatricopeptide Repeat (PPR)
		7.4.3 Methods of Genome Editing
			7.4.3.1 Microinjection
			7.4.3.2 Electroporation
			7.4.3.3 In Vivo Transfection/Transduction
	7.5 Current Status of Genome Editing in Aquaculture Species
	7.6 Genome Editing and Reproductive Manipulation
	7.7 TIPS for Effective CRISPR/Cas9 Based Knockout in Fish (Modified from El Marjou et al. 2020, Using Our Own Protocol)
		7.7.1 sgRNA Design
		7.7.2 Preparation of CRISPR/Cas9 Solution
		7.7.3 Collection of One-Cell Stage Embryo
		7.7.4 Cytoplasmic Microinjection
		7.7.5 Genotyping
		7.7.6 Germ Line Transmission
	7.8 Future Direction
	References
8: Metabolomics: A Novel Technology for Health Management in Aquaculture
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Why Metabolomics?
	8.3 Factors Affecting the Metabolic Profiling
	8.4 Metabolomics Workflow
		8.4.1 Separation Methods
			8.4.1.1 Gas Chromatography (GC)
			8.4.1.2 High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)
			8.4.1.3 Capillary Electrophoresis (CE)
		8.4.2 Detection Methods
			8.4.2.1 Mass Spectrometry (MS)
			8.4.2.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
		8.4.3 Statistical Methods
	8.5 Application of Metabolomics in Health Management in Aquaculture
	8.6 Other Applications
	8.7 Application of Metabolomics in Environmental Studies
	8.8 Limitations of Metabolomics
	8.9 Database
	8.10 Conclusion
	References
9: Epigenetics: Perspectives and Potential in Aquaculture
	9.1 Introduction
	9.2 Epigenetic Inheritance
	9.3 Main Epigenetic Mechanisms
		9.3.1 DNA Methylation
			9.3.1.1 DNA Methylation in Fish and Shellfish
		9.3.2 Histone Modifications
			9.3.2.1 Histone Posttranslational Modifications in Fish and Shellfish
		9.3.3 Noncoding RNA and RNA Modifications
			9.3.3.1 Noncoding RNA in Fish and Shellfish
	9.4 Potential Aquaculture Applications
		9.4.1 Disease Resistance and Stress Tolerance
		9.4.2 Feeds/Nutritional Programming and Growth
		9.4.3 Sex Reversal and Better Sex Ratios
		9.4.4 Brood-Stock Conditioning and Transgenerational Plasticity/Epigenetic Inheritance
		9.4.5 Epigenetics in Selection and Domestication
	9.5 Conclusions and Future Perspectives
	References
10: Application of Stem Cell-Based Technologies in Management of Fisheries Resources
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Germ Cell Transplantation
	10.3 In Vitro Gametogenesis
	10.4 Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)
	10.5 Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT)
	References
11: Molecular Markers in Aquaculture
	11.1 Introduction
		11.1.1 Properties of Markers
		11.1.2 Allozymes
		11.1.3 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)
		11.1.4 Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD)
		11.1.5 Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP)
		11.1.6 Sequence Characterized Amplified Region (SCAR)
		11.1.7 Microarray Techniques
		11.1.8 Expressed Sequence Tag (EST)
		11.1.9 Microsatellites and Minisatellites
		11.1.10 Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) Marker
		11.1.11 Mitochondrial DNA
		11.1.12 Transcriptomics
	11.2 Selection of Markers and Their Utility in Aquaculture
	References
12: Microsatellite Markers for Fish Conservation
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Molecular Markers
	12.3 Microsatellite Markers
	12.4 Importance of Microsatellites as a Marker
	12.5 Applications of Microsatellites in the Conservation of Fishes
		12.5.1 Identification of Fishes
		12.5.2 Identification of Stocks or Units
		12.5.3 Population Genetic Analysis
	12.6 Conclusion
	References
13: Cryopreservation in Aquaculture
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Present Status of Cryopreservation
	13.3 Importance of Cryopreservation
	13.4 Principle of Cryopreservation
	13.5 Protocol for Cryopreservation
		13.5.1 Collection of Milt
		13.5.2 Evaluation of Milt Quality and Quantity
		13.5.3 Addition of Extenders
		13.5.4 Cryoprotectant Addition
		13.5.5 Dilution of Fish Milt
		13.5.6 Equilibration of Fish Milt
		13.5.7 Storage
		13.5.8 Freezing of Milt
		13.5.9 Thawing of Milt
	13.6 Changes in Sperm Quality During Cryopreservation
	References
14: Nanobiotechnology: Prospects and Applications in Aquaculture
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Types of Nanomaterials
	14.3 Synthesis of Nanoparticles
	14.4 Biological or Green Synthesis of Nanoparticles
	14.5 Nanodelivery of Drugs in Aquaculture
	14.6 Gene or DNA Delivery
	14.7 Vaccine-Adjuvant
	14.8 Management of Animal Breeding
	14.9 Nano Smart Delivery System in Cell vs. Transgenic
	14.10 Disease Diagnosis
	14.11 Nano-biosensors
	14.12 Tagging and Nano-barcoding
	14.13 Conclusion and Future Direction
	References
15: Application of Nanotechnology for Abiotic Stress Management in Aquaculture
	15.1 Introduction
	15.2 Significance of Nanoparticles in Aquaculture
	15.3 Type of the Nanomaterial
	15.4 Role of Zinc Nanoparticles (Zn-NPs)
		15.4.1 Characteristic of Zn-NPs
	15.5 Role of Nanoparticles in Growth Performance Against Abiotic Stress
	15.6 Role of Nanoparticles in Reduction of Oxidative Stress Against Abiotic Stress
	15.7 Role of Nanoparticles in Improvement of Immune System Against Abiotic Stress
	15.8 Role of Nanoparticles in Reproduction Against Abiotic Stress
	15.9 Summary
	References
16: Nutritional Biotechnology to Augment Aquaculture Production
	16.1 Introduction
	16.2 Plant Proteins as Alternatives to Fish Meals
	16.3 Feed Additives
	16.4 Utilization of Plant Fibers in Fish Feed Through Enzymes
	16.5 Phytase in Aquafeed
	16.6 Micro-nutrients and Vitamins in Fish Feed
	16.7 Nutraceuticals
	16.8 Fish Feed Attractants
	16.9 Probiotics in Fish Nutrition
	16.10 Prebiotics in Fish Nutrition
	16.11 Quality Management and Detection of Contaminants in Fish Feeds
	16.12 Growth Improvement and Enhancement of Quantitative Traits in Fish
	16.13 Highly Unsaturated Fatty Acids (HUFA) and Qualitative Enhancement of Fish
	16.14 Application of Feed Probiotics
	16.15 Future Perspectives of Probiotics
	16.16 Immunostimulants for Aquaculture
	16.17 Conclusion
	References
17: Pigmentation in Fishes
	17.1 Introduction
	17.2 Types of Carotenoid Pigments
	17.3 Absorption of Carotenoids
	17.4 Application of Carotenoids in Crustacean Culture
	17.5 Application of Carotenoids in Feed
	17.6 Hormonal Methods to Enhance Coloration
	17.7 Problems in Maintenance of Brightness of Pigments
	17.8 Feed Additives for Coloration
		17.8.1 China Rose Petals (Hibiscus rosasinensis)
		17.8.2 Dried Marigold (Tagatef patula) Petals
		17.8.3 Gulmohar ( Puya)
		17.8.4 Waste from Crustaceans
		17.8.5 Chironomids
		17.8.6 Aquatic Angiosperms
		17.8.7 Blue-Green Algae and Algal Powder
		17.8.8 Zooplanktons
	17.9 Requirement of Carotenoids
	17.10 Extraction and Estimation of Carotenoids from Fish and Crustaceans
	17.11 Estimation
	17.12 Conversion of Carotenoids into Vitamin A in Freshwater Fish
	17.13 Genetic Basis of Carotenoid Coloration in Fish
	References
18: Immunoprophylactic Measures in Aquaculture
	18.1 Introduction
	18.2 Concept of Immunoprophylaxis
	18.3 Historical Perspective
	18.4 Concept of Immunoprophylaxis in Aquaculture
	18.5 Classification of Immunoprophylaxis
		18.5.1 Active Immunoprophylaxis Measure (Vaccines)
		18.5.2 Passive Immunoprophylaxis
	18.6 Immunostimulants
		18.6.1 General Aspects of Immunostimulants
		18.6.2 Role of Immunostimulant
	18.7 Classification of Immunostimulants
		18.7.1 Synthetic Chemicals
		18.7.2 Microbial Product as Immunoprophylaxis Measure
			18.7.2.1 Bacterial Derivatives
			18.7.2.2 LPS (Lipopolysaccharide)
			18.7.2.3 FCA (Freund´s Complete Adjuvant)
			18.7.2.4 Vibrio Bacterin
			18.7.2.5 Clostridium butyricum Cells
			18.7.2.6 EF203
		18.7.3 Yeast Derivatives
		18.7.4 Polysaccharides
			18.7.4.1 Chitin and Chitosan
			18.7.4.2 Lentinan, Schizophyllan, and Oligosaccharide
		18.7.5 Medicinal Plant as Immunostimulant
		18.7.6 Animal Derivatives as Immunostimulant
			18.7.6.1 Firefly Squid
		18.7.7 Nutritional Factors
			18.7.7.1 Nutrient Based Immunoprophylactic Measures
			18.7.7.2 Vitamins and Minerals
		18.7.8 Hormones
		18.7.9 Cytokines
		18.7.10 Algal Derivatives
	18.8 Combating Diseases Through Immunoprophylaxis Measures
		18.8.1 Combating Vibriosis
		18.8.2 Combating Aeromonas hydrophila
	18.9 Immunostimulation Act on Nonspecific Defense Mechanisms
	18.10 Diet and Husbandry Practices Toward Immunoprophylaxis
		18.10.1 Husbandry Practices Followed for Better Prophylaxis
		18.10.2 Probiotics and Prebiotics
		18.10.3 Nutraceuticals
		18.10.4 Genetic Selection
	18.11 CIBAstim, a Shrimp Immunostimulant: A Case Study
	18.12 Biofloc-based Farming System
	18.13 Conclusion
	References
19: DNA Vaccines for Fish
	19.1 Introduction
	19.2 Working Mechanism of DNA Vaccines
		19.2.1 Innate Immune Response by DNA Vaccination
		19.2.2 Cell-Mediated Immune Response by DNA Vaccination
		19.2.3 Humoral Immune Response by DNA Vaccination
	19.3 Development of DNA Vaccines for Aquaculture
		19.3.1 DNA Vaccine Against RNA Viruses (Table 19.1)
			19.3.1.1 Rhabdovirus
			19.3.1.2 Orthomyxovirus
			19.3.1.3 Betanodavirus
			19.3.1.4 Alphavirus
			19.3.1.5 Reovirus
			19.3.1.6 Aquabirnavirus
		19.3.2 DNA Vaccine Against DNA Viruses (Table 19.2)
			19.3.2.1 Herpesvirus
			19.3.2.2 Iridovirus
		19.3.3 DNA Vaccine Against Gram Negative Bacteria (Table 19.3)
			19.3.3.1 Enterobacteriaceae
			19.3.3.2 Aeromonadaceae
			19.3.3.3 Vibrionaceae
		19.3.4 DNA Vaccine Against Gram Positive Bacteria (Table 19.4)
			19.3.4.1 Streptococcaceae
			19.3.4.2 Mycobacteriaceae
			19.3.4.3 Nocardiaceae
			19.3.4.4 DNA Vaccine Against Parasites (Table 19.5)
	19.4 Delivery Route of DNA Vaccine in Fish
	19.5 Correlates of Protection of DNA Vaccination
	19.6 Safety Aspects of Fish DNA Vaccines
	19.7 Regulatory Aspects of Fish DNA Vaccines
	19.8 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
	References
20: Bacteriophage Therapy in Aquaculture: An Overview
	20.1 Introduction
	20.2 Brief About Bacteriophages
	20.3 History of Bacteriophage Researches
	20.4 Bacterial Diseases in Aquaculture and Its Control Measures
	20.5 Research on Bacteriophage Therapy in Aquaculture
	20.6 Phage-Based Products for Therapy in Aquaculture
	20.7 Strategic Guideline for the Development of Phage Therapy in Aquaculture
	20.8 Dose and Mode of Application for Phage Therapy
	20.9 Positives and Negatives of Phage Therapy
	20.10 Conclusion
	References
21: Disease Diagnostic Tools for Health Management in Aquaculture
	21.1 Introduction
	21.2 Diagnostic Tools Used in Fish Disease
		21.2.1 Case History of Disease: An Important Prerequisite of Disease Diagnosis
		21.2.2 Microscopy Techniques in Disease Diagnosis
			21.2.2.1 Light Microscopy
			21.2.2.2 Electron Microscopy
		21.2.3 Histological Techniques in Disease Diagnosis
			21.2.3.1 Histochemistry
		21.2.4 Microbiological Techniques in Disease Diagnosis
			21.2.4.1 Staining Methods
			21.2.4.2 Culture of Microbial Pathogens in Selective Medium
			21.2.4.3 Biochemical Test
		21.2.5 Immunological Techniques in Disease Diagnosis
			21.2.5.1 Agglutination Test
			21.2.5.2 Agar Gel Immuno-Diffusion Assay
			21.2.5.3 ELISA
			21.2.5.4 Fluorescent Antibody Technique
		21.2.6 Molecular Techniques in Disease Diagnosis
			21.2.6.1 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
			21.2.6.2 Sequencing Techniques
	21.3 Conclusion and Future Perspective
	References
22: Prospect and Challenges of Biofloc Technology for Sustainable Aquaculture Development
	22.1 Introduction
	22.2 History of BFT
	22.3 Biofloc Production
	22.4 Nutritional Value of Biofloc as Fish Feed
	22.5 Water Quality Management in Biofloc System
		22.5.1 Temperature
		22.5.2 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
		22.5.3 pH
		22.5.4 Alkalinity
		22.5.5 Total Ammonia Nitrogen (TAN)
		22.5.6 Nitrite Nitrogen
		22.5.7 Nitrate Nitrogen
		22.5.8 Orthophosphate
		22.5.9 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
		22.5.10 Settling Solids (SS)
	22.6 Placement of Aerators in Biofloc Ponds
	22.7 Identification of Biofloc Using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
	22.8 Prospective of Biofloc Technology
	22.9 Conclusion and Challenges of BFT
	References
23: Biofilm in Aquaculture Production
	23.1 Introduction
	23.2 Biofilm
		23.2.1 Organisms Associated with Biofilm
		23.2.2 Biochemical Composition of Biofilm
	23.3 Factors Influencing Biofilm Formation
		23.3.1 Nutrients
		23.3.2 Grazing
		23.3.3 Substrate
		23.3.4 Light and Temperature
	23.4 Role of Biofilm in Aquaculture
		23.4.1 Biofilm in Nursery System
		23.4.2 Biofilm in Stocking Management
			23.4.2.1 As a Feed Ingredient
			23.4.2.2 As an Immunostimulant/Vaccine
			23.4.2.3 In-Situ Water Quality Management by Biofilm
		23.4.3 Biofilm in Post-stocking Management
			23.4.3.1 Biofilm in Aquaculture Effluent Treatment
			23.4.3.2 Biofilm in Fish Growth
		23.4.4 Suitable Species for Biofilm-Based Aquaculture
	23.5 Biofilm Development in Aquaculture Ponds
	23.6 Economics of Biofilm-Based Aquaculture
	23.7 Knowledge Gaps and Further Recommendation
	23.8 Conclusion
	References
24: Bioremediation of Aquatic Environment
	24.1 Introduction
	24.2 Principle of Bioremediation
	24.3 Bioremediation Strategies
		24.3.1 In Situ Bioremediation
			24.3.1.1 Bioventing
			24.3.1.2 Biosparging
			24.3.1.3 Bioaugmentation
		24.3.2 Ex Situ Bioremediation
			24.3.2.1 Solid Phase Treatment
			24.3.2.2 Slurry Phase Treatment
			24.3.2.3 Land Farming
			24.3.2.4 Composting
			24.3.2.5 Biopiles
			24.3.2.6 Bioreactors
		24.3.3 Factors Responsible for Bioremediation
		24.3.4 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals
		24.3.5 Sources of Heavy Metal in the Environment
		24.3.6 Microbial Bioremediation of Heavy Metals
		24.3.7 Bioremediation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
	24.4 Distribution of Hydrocarbon-Utilizing Microorganisms
	24.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioremediation
	24.6 Limitation of Bioremediation
	24.7 Conclusion
	References
25: Effects of Pharmaceutical Waste in Aquatic Life
	25.1 Introduction
	25.2 Sources of Pharmaceutical Wastes
		25.2.1 Point Source Pharmaceutical Wastes
		25.2.2 Nonpoint Source or Diffused Pharmaceutical Waste Pollution
	25.3 Effects of Pharmaceutical to Fish
	25.4 Effects of Pharmaceuticals on Other Aquatic Organisms
	25.5 Management of Pharmaceutical Wastes
	25.6 Treatment of Pharmaceutical Wastes
		25.6.1 Incineration
		25.6.2 Autoclaving
		25.6.3 Microwaving
	References
26: Biosafety and Bio-Security for Sustainable Aquaculture Development
	26.1 Introduction
	26.2 Bio-Security in Aquaculture
	26.3 Need of Bio-Security in Aquaculture
		26.3.1 Trans-Boundary Aquatic Animal Diseases
		26.3.2 Antimicrobial Resistance in Aquaculture
		26.3.3 Risk Associated with Wild Fish Used for Breeding Program
		26.3.4 Risk Associated with Live Feed
		26.3.5 Crustacean Culture
	26.4 Major Goals of Bio-Security
	26.5 Developing and Using Specific-Pathogen-Free (SPF) Brood Stock as a Tool of Bio-Security in Aquaculture
	26.6 Bio-Security at International Levels
	26.7 Status of Bio-Security in Aquaculture Farms of India
	26.8 Biosafety in Aquaculture
	26.9 Approach of Biosafety in Aquaculture
	26.10 Conclusion
	References
27: Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) Shrimps in Aquaculture
	27.1 Introduction
	27.2 Concept of SPF
	27.3 Methodologies to Produce SPF Shrimp Stock
		27.3.1 Identification of Candidate SPF Stocks
		27.3.2 Testing for Pathogens
		27.3.3 Primary Quarantine
		27.3.4 Secondary Quarantine
	27.4 Advantages and Limitations of SPF
	27.5 Status of SPF Around the World
	27.6 Conclusion
	References
28: Enzymes from Aquatic Resources and Their Application in Food and Cosmetic Industry
	28.1 Introduction
	28.2 Seafood Enzymes
		28.2.1 Nucleotide Degrading Enzymes
		28.2.2 Myosin ATPases
		28.2.3 Phospholipases
		28.2.4 Lipases
		28.2.5 Transglutaminases
		28.2.6 TMAO Degrading Enzymes
		28.2.7 Proteinases
		28.2.8 Polyphenoloxidase
		28.2.9 Lipoxygenases (LOXs)
	28.3 Application of Enzymes in Food Industry
		28.3.1 Enzymes as Indicators of Quality
		28.3.2 Enzymes as Flavour Biogenesis
		28.3.3 Enzymes in Improving Seafood Texture
		28.3.4 Enzymes in Krill Processing
		28.3.5 Enzymes in Speciality Products
		28.3.6 Enzymes in Enriching PUFA of Fish Oils
		28.3.7 Enzymes in Caviar Production
		28.3.8 Enzymes in Cured Fish Products
		28.3.9 Enzymes in Protein Hydrolysates
		28.3.10 Enzymes as Seafood Flavorings
		28.3.11 Enzymes in Fish Sauces
		28.3.12 Enzymes as Fish Processing Aids
			28.3.12.1 Deskinning
			28.3.12.2 Descaling
			28.3.12.3 Membrane Removal
	28.4 Application in Other Food Sectors
		28.4.1 Dairy Technology
		28.4.2 Prevention of Oxidized Flavour in Milk
		28.4.3 Preparation of Infant Milk
	28.5 Seafood Enzymes in Cosmetic Industry
		28.5.1 Superoxide Dismutase
		28.5.2 Proteases
		28.5.3 Lipases
		28.5.4 Glutathione Transferase
	28.6 Application of Seafood Enzymes in Cosmetic Industry
		28.6.1 Enzymes as Anti-Aging Molecules
		28.6.2 Enzymes as Exfoliant
		28.6.3 Enzymes as Anti-Free Radicals
	28.7 Conclusion
	References
29: Biotechnological Approaches to Valorization of Fish Biowastes and Their Potential Applications
	29.1 Introduction
	29.2 Fish Biowaste and Its Utilization
		29.2.1 Fish Scale
			29.2.1.1 Chemical Composition of Fish Scales
			29.2.1.2 Fish Scale as a Source of Type-1 Collagen
			29.2.1.3 Bioactivities of Fish Scale Collagen Hydrolysates
			29.2.1.4 Bacterial and Enzymatic Degradation of Fish Scale Biowaste
			29.2.1.5 Bacterial Collagenases and Their Application in Fish Scale Biodegradation
			29.2.1.6 Application of Bacterial Collagenases in Fish Scale Hydrolysis
		29.2.2 Fish Skin and Its Derivatives
		29.2.3 Fish Head and Bone
		29.2.4 Viscera
	29.3 Shellfish Biowastes and Their Utilization
		29.3.1 Chitin
			29.3.1.1 Isomorphs of Chitin
			29.3.1.2 Process of Chitin Extraction
		29.3.2 Biological Extraction of Chitin
			29.3.2.1 Enzymatic Deproteinization
			29.3.2.2 Fermentation
				One-Step Fermentation
				Two-Step Fermentation
				Three-Step Fermentation
		29.3.3 Chitin Hydrolyzing Enzymes
		29.3.4 Applications of Biologically Extracted Chitin and Its Derivatives
			29.3.4.1 Environmental Application
		29.3.5 Protein Hydrolysate
	29.4 Conclusion
	References