Advances in eco-fuels for a sustainable environment

Front Cover......Page 1
Advances in Eco-Fuels for a Sustainable Environment......Page 4
Copyright......Page 5
Contents......Page 6
Contributors......Page 12
About the editor......Page 16
Preface......Page 18
 1.1. Background......Page 24
 1.2. Is ecofuel a possible solution for future energy security and environmental sustainability?......Page 28
 1.3. Prospective ecofuel feedstocks......Page 29
 1.4. Significance of using ecofuel......Page 31
 1.5. Sustainability of ecofuels......Page 32
 References......Page 33
 2.1. Introduction......Page 38
 2.2. Different feedstocks for different biofuel-generations......Page 40
 2.3. Biofuel types......Page 46
  2.3.1. Biogas and biomethane......Page 47
  2.3.2. Liquid biofuels......Page 48
   2.3.2.1. Biodiesel and bioethanol......Page 49
   2.3.2.2. Biobutanol......Page 50
  2.4.1. AD process......Page 51
  2.4.2. Bioethanol production......Page 54
  2.4.3. Biobutanol production......Page 60
 2.5. Biofuels ecological footprint......Page 63
 2.6. Economic considerations......Page 67
 2.7. Future prospects......Page 69
 2.8. Conclusions......Page 70
 References......Page 71
 3.1. Introduction......Page 76
  3.2.1. Prospects of edible oils for biodiesel production......Page 77
   3.2.1.1. Groundnut/peanut......Page 80
   3.2.1.2. Sesame......Page 85
   3.2.1.5. Olive......Page 86
   3.2.1.8. Sunflower......Page 87
   3.2.1.9. Soybean......Page 88
   3.2.1.10. Walnut......Page 89
   3.2.1.13. Coconut......Page 90
  3.2.2. Prospects of nonedible oils for biodiesel production......Page 91
   3.2.2.1. Jatropha (Jatropha curcas L.)......Page 92
   3.2.2.2. Neem oil (Azadirachta indica)......Page 95
   3.2.2.4. Mahua oil (Madhuca indica)......Page 96
   3.2.2.7. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)......Page 97
   3.2.2.9. Rice bran oil (Oryza sativa)......Page 98
  3.2.3. Animal fats as feedstock for biodiesel production......Page 99
  3.3.1. Mechanical extraction method......Page 100
  3.3.2. Chemical extraction method......Page 101
  3.3.3. Enzymatic method of extraction......Page 102
  3.3.4. Supercritical fluid method of extraction......Page 104
 3.4. Challenges of biodiesel production and recommended solution......Page 105
 3.5. Conclusion......Page 106
 References......Page 107
 4.1. Introduction......Page 112
 4.2. Feedstocks for ecofuel production......Page 113
    Soybean oil (Glycine max)......Page 114
    Peanut oil (Arachis hypogaea)......Page 116
    Sunflower oil (Helianthus annuus)......Page 117
    Coconut oil (Cocos nucifera)......Page 118
    Cottonseed oil (Gossypium hirsutum)......Page 119
   4.2.1.3. Nonedible oils......Page 120
    Pongamia oil (Pongamia pinnata)......Page 121
    Jojoba oil (Simmondsia chinensis)......Page 122
    Coffee oil (Coffea arabica)......Page 123
    Milkweed seed oil (Asclepias syriaca)......Page 124
    Rubber seed oil (Hevea brasiliensis)......Page 125
    Safflower oil (Carthamus tinctorius)......Page 126
  4.2.2. WCO as feedstock for biodiesel......Page 127
  4.2.4. Grease as feedstock for biodiesel......Page 128
   4.2.5.1. Fish oil as feedstock......Page 130
   4.2.5.4. Tallow as feedstock......Page 131
   4.2.6.1. Microalgae as feedstock for biodiesel......Page 132
  4.3.1. Bioethanol from sugars......Page 133
  4.3.3. Bioethanol from lignocelluloses......Page 134
 4.5. Conclusion......Page 135
 References......Page 136
 Further reading......Page 140
 5.1. Pyrolysis process in waste management......Page 142
 5.2. Microwave heating mechanism......Page 144
 5.3. Influence of microwave heating on the pyrolysis......Page 146
 5.4. Factors affecting the pyrolysis process......Page 147
 5.5. Designation of microwave heating on the materials......Page 150
 5.7. Pyrolysis of automotive waste......Page 151
 5.8. Experimental setup and procedure......Page 153
 5.9. TG/DSC analysis for waste engine oil and microwave pyrolysis oil......Page 154
  5.10.1. Temperature profile......Page 156
  5.10.2. Specific energy consumption......Page 157
  5.11.1. Pyrolysis liquid yield......Page 158
  5.11.3. Char yield......Page 160
 5.12. Hydrocarbon analysis of electrical and microwave pyrolysis......Page 162
 5.13. Analysis of FT-IR spectroscopy of different products......Page 171
 5.14. Comparison of calorific value for the different pyrolysis oil......Page 173
 5.15. Comparison of kinematic viscosity of the different pyrolysis oils......Page 174
 Acknowledgments......Page 175
 References......Page 176
 6.1. Introduction......Page 180
  6.2.2. Acidogenesis......Page 183
  6.3.1. Physical methods......Page 184
  6.3.2. Chemical methods......Page 185
  6.4.1. Temperature......Page 186
  6.4.2. Pressure......Page 187
  6.4.4. Retention period......Page 188
  6.4.6. Carbon-to-nitrogen ratio......Page 189
  6.5.3. The need for removing moisture from biogas......Page 190
  6.7.2. Wet and dry systems......Page 191
  6.8.1. Floating drum type digester......Page 192
  6.8.5. Horizontal plants......Page 193
  6.9.3. Aquatic plants......Page 194
 6.10. Second-generation biofuel production from agricultural waste......Page 195
   6.10.1.1. Homogeneous catalyst......Page 197
   6.10.1.2. Enzymatic biocatalyst......Page 198
  6.11.2. Biochemical methane potential......Page 199
  6.11.4. Hydrodynamic, hydric transfers, and rheology......Page 200
  6.11.5. Codigestion and inhibition......Page 201
 6.12. Conclusion......Page 202
 References......Page 203
 7.1. Introduction......Page 210
 7.2. Overview on downstream processing techniques......Page 212
 7.3. Extraction of oil from nonedible seeds......Page 213
  7.4.1. Mechanical extraction......Page 214
  7.4.4. Enzymatic extraction......Page 215
  7.5.1. Pyrolysis (thermal cracking)......Page 216
  7.5.4. Transesterification (alcoholysis)......Page 217
  7.6.1. Harvesting of microalgae......Page 218
   7.6.2.1. Centrifugation......Page 219
   7.6.2.3. Filtration......Page 220
   7.6.2.5. Magnetic separation......Page 221
  7.7.2. Microwave-assisted extraction......Page 222
  7.7.3. Ultrasound-assisted extraction......Page 223
  7.8.2. Supercritical fluid extraction......Page 224
  7.8.4. Ionic liquids......Page 225
 7.10. Conclusions......Page 226
 References......Page 227
 Further reading......Page 232
 8.1. Introduction......Page 234
 8.2. History of bioethanol production......Page 236
 8.3. Bioethanol feedstock resources......Page 238
 8.4. Progress in bioethanol technologies......Page 240
  8.5.1. Global bioethanol potential......Page 242
  8.5.2. Commercial bioethanol plants in operation......Page 243
  8.5.3. Bioethanol plants at the pilot and demonstration stage......Page 246
  8.5.4. Bioethanol plants stopped production......Page 249
  8.5.5. Summary of future activities......Page 252
 8.6. Challenges and future research direction......Page 254
 8.7. Conclusion......Page 255
 References......Page 256
 Further reading......Page 259
 9.1. Introduction......Page 260
  9.2.1. Rice bran and rice bran oil (RBO)......Page 262
  9.2.2. Microalgae......Page 264
  9.2.3. Spent coffee grounds......Page 267
  9.3.1. Catalytic and noncatalytic biodiesel conversion of rice bran/RBO......Page 268
  9.3.2. Catalytic and noncatalytic biodiesel conversion from microalgae......Page 271
  9.3.3. Catalytic and noncatalytic biodiesel production from spent coffee grounds......Page 280
  9.4.1. Production of biodiesel and γ-oryzanol from rice bran/RBO......Page 284
  9.4.2. Biorefinery approach in biodiesel production from microalgae......Page 287
  9.4.3. Biorefinery approach in the biodiesel production from spent coffee grounds......Page 290
 9.5. Conclusions......Page 291
 References......Page 292
 Further reading......Page 299
 10.1. Introduction......Page 300
  10.2.1. Feedstock characterization......Page 305
  10.2.2. Design of experiment, experimental procedure, and statistical analysis......Page 306
  10.2.3. Experimental method......Page 307
  10.2.4. Determination of the appropriate conditions for enhanced biocrude yield......Page 310
 10.3. Comparative assessment of the economic performances of the HTL based one-step processing of digestate and existing  .........Page 311
   10.3.1.1. Equipment purchase cost......Page 312
   10.3.1.2. HTL-digestate processing operating cost estimation......Page 314
   10.3.2.1. Total capital investment cost estimate for both digestate processing and water treatment operations......Page 315
   10.3.2.2. Annual operating cost estimate for the digestate processing for both digestate processing and water treatment o .........Page 316
 10.4. Results and discussions......Page 318
  10.4.1. Effects and statistical significance of operating conditions of the HTL process investigated......Page 319
  10.4.2. The operating conditions for a maximum biocrude yield......Page 323
  10.4.3. Comparative economic assessments of the HTL digestate processing pathway and the (existing) conventional digestat .........Page 324
  10.4.4. Range of possible values of the unit digestate processing cost for the alternative pathways......Page 325
 10.5. Conclusions......Page 326
 References......Page 327
 11.1. Introduction......Page 332
  11.2.2. Oil extraction......Page 334
   11.2.3.2. Base-catalyzed transesterification......Page 335
   11.2.7.1. Acid value......Page 336
   11.2.7.3. Iodine value......Page 337
   11.2.7.6. Cloud and pour point......Page 338
   11.2.7.8. Conradson carbon residue......Page 339
  11.3.1. Infrared spectra of AMC biodiesel......Page 341
  11.3.2. The fatty acid composition of AMC biodiesel......Page 342
   11.3.3.1. Cetane number......Page 343
   11.3.3.2. Saponification value......Page 345
   11.3.3.3. Iodine value......Page 346
   11.3.3.5. Cold filter plugging point (CFPP) cloud point and pour point......Page 347
   11.3.3.6. Acid number......Page 348
   11.3.3.8. Lubricity......Page 349
   11.3.3.9. Carbon residue......Page 351
    Mechanism of oxidation......Page 352
    Factors affecting oxidation......Page 353
  11.3.4. Tribological analysis......Page 354
 11.4. Conclusions......Page 356
 References......Page 357
 12.1. Introduction......Page 360
 12.2. Methodology and associated theory......Page 361
  12.3.1. Physiochemical properties of the fuel......Page 363
  12.3.2. Analysis of coefficient of friction......Page 365
  12.3.3. Wear characteristics......Page 369
  12.3.5. Surface morphology analysis by SEM......Page 370
 References......Page 372
 13.1. Introduction......Page 376
  13.2.1. Waste frying oil and methyl ester purification process......Page 380
  13.2.2. Biodiesel experimental setup and biodiesel synthesis......Page 381
  13.2.3. Design of experiments......Page 382
  13.2.4. Methyl ester characterization......Page 384
   13.2.5.1. Flash and fire point......Page 385
   13.2.5.4. Calorific value......Page 386
  13.2.6. Fuel properties......Page 387
  13.2.7. Fuel modification and selection of ternary blends......Page 390
  13.2.8. Engine setup and uncertainty analysis......Page 392
  13.3.2. The effect of process parameters in biodiesel synthesis......Page 396
  13.3.3. Performance, emission, and combustion characteristics of biodiesel-diesel-alcohol blends......Page 397
 13.4. Conclusions......Page 409
 References......Page 411
 14.1. Introduction......Page 414
  14.2.4. Experimental details......Page 417
  14.3.1. Different proportions of AME blends with diesel......Page 419
  14.3.3. Brake specific fuel consumption......Page 420
  14.3.4. Exhaust gas temperature......Page 421
   14.3.4.1. HC emission......Page 422
   14.3.4.2. Carbon monoxide emission......Page 423
   14.3.4.4. Smoke emission......Page 424
  14.3.5. Cylinder pressure......Page 425
  14.3.6. Heat release rate......Page 426
 References......Page 427
 15.1. Introduction......Page 430
   15.2.1.2. Gaseous fuels......Page 433
 15.3. Biodiesel in CI engine......Page 435
  15.3.2. Nonedible oils......Page 436
  15.3.3. Production process......Page 437
   15.3.4.1. Brake thermal efficiency......Page 438
   15.3.5.1. Ignition delay......Page 440
   15.3.6.1. Hydrocarbons......Page 441
   15.3.6.4. Smoke......Page 442
  15.4.1. Alcohols in CI engine......Page 443
   15.4.1.1. Performance characteristics of alcohols......Page 444
    Ignition delay......Page 445
    Carbon monoxide......Page 446
    Smoke......Page 447
   15.4.2.1. Performance characteristics of LVLC fuels......Page 448
    Cylinder peak pressure......Page 449
    Hydrocarbons......Page 450
   15.4.2.4. Tribological aspects of LVLC fuels......Page 451
   15.5.1.1. Brake thermal efficiency......Page 452
  15.5.2. Combustion characteristics of gaseous fuels......Page 454
   15.5.2.3. Heat release rate......Page 455
   15.5.3.2. Carbon monoxide......Page 456
 15.6. Conclusion......Page 457
 References......Page 459
 Further reading......Page 463
 16.1. Introduction......Page 464
 16.2. Types of biofuel and bioethanol......Page 465
 16.3. Worldwide bioethanol production......Page 466
  16.4.1. High oil price......Page 467
  16.4.3. Peak oil era......Page 468
  16.5.1. Additional pressure on prime agricultural land......Page 469
  16.5.3. Environmental impacts......Page 470
 16.6. Bioethanol production in Australia......Page 471
 16.7. Potential feedstocks for bioethanol production in Australia......Page 473
 16.8. Costs and benefits of biofuel production in Australia......Page 475
 Acknowledgment......Page 477
 References......Page 478
 Further reading......Page 481
 17.1. Introduction of ecofuel......Page 482
 17.2. Global interest in ecofuels......Page 483
 17.3. Ecofuel sources......Page 485
  17.3.2. Second-generation (2G) ecofuel......Page 486
  17.3.4. Fourth-generation (4G) ecofuels......Page 487
 17.4. Why ecofuels and ecofuel policies?......Page 488
 17.5. Assessing the impacts of ecofuels......Page 490
 17.6. Expected environmental impacts of ecofuel......Page 491
  17.6.4. Potential economic gains......Page 492
  17.6.7. Water reuses......Page 493
  17.6.9. Land use aspects......Page 494
 17.7. Land availability......Page 495
  17.8.3. Job creation at farm level......Page 496
 17.9. Political impacts of ecofuels......Page 497
 References......Page 498
Index......Page 504
Back Cover......Page 520