Advanced Techniques of Honey Analysis: Characterization, Authentication, and Adulteration

Front Cover
Advanced Techniques of Honey Analysis
Copyright Page
Dedication
Contents
List of contributors
About the editors
Foreword
Preface
1. Honey: classification, composition, safety, quality issues and health benefits
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 Classification of honey
		1.2.1 Based on origin
			1.2.1.1 Unifloral honey
			1.2.1.2 Multi-floral honey
			1.2.1.3 Blossom honey
			1.2.1.4 Honeydew honey
		1.2.2 Based on the type of processing technology
			1.2.2.1 Comb honey
			1.2.2.2 Strained honey
			1.2.2.3 Chunk honey
			1.2.2.4 Extracted honey
		1.2.3 Crystallized or granulated honey
		1.2.4 Creamed honey
		1.2.5 Grading honey
			1.2.5.1 Grade A
			1.2.5.2 Grade B
			1.2.5.3 Grade C
				1.2.5.3.1 Composition of honey
	1.3 Physicochemical characteristics of honey
		1.3.1 Color
		1.3.2 Viscosity
		1.3.3 pH
		1.3.4 Pollen density
		1.3.5 Moisture content of honey
		1.3.6 Electric conductivity
		1.3.7 Sugars (carbohydrate)
		1.3.8 Hydroxy methyl furfur aldehyde
		1.3.9 Acidity
		1.3.10 Amino acids
		1.3.11 Vitamin C
		1.3.12 Phenols
		1.3.13 Diastase content
		1.3.14 Mineral compositions
		1.3.15 Therapeutic potential of honey
			1.3.15.1 Antioxidant effect
			1.3.15.2 Antimicrobial effect
			1.3.15.3 Antiinflammatory effect
			1.3.15.4 Wound healing
			1.3.15.5 Antiulcer
			1.3.15.6 Antidiabetic
			1.3.15.7 Anticancer
			1.3.15.8 Cardio protective effect of honey
	1.4 Honey production, quality control agencies and parameters
	1.5 Honey safety and shelf life
		1.5.1 Problems and issues related to honey production, processing, and quality analysis
			1.5.1.1 Impact of geographical origin on honey composition and quality
			1.5.1.2 Impact of the various botanical origin of honey plant on honey quality and quantity
		1.5.2 Effects of different season on the content as well as the quality of honey
		1.5.3 Beehive technologies as a determinant of composition and quality
		1.5.4 Effect of extraction on the content as well as the quality of honey
		1.5.5 Effects of processing and storage on the content and overall quality of honey
		1.5.6 Influence of agrochemicals on honey quality
		1.5.7 Effect of adulteration on quality and composition of honey
		1.5.8 Novel techniques to detect impurities in honey
		1.5.9 Spectroscopic techniques
		1.5.10 Microscopic analysis
		1.5.11 Immunoassays
		1.5.12 Thixotropicity
	1.6 Health benefits of honey
		1.6.1 Nutritional benefits
			1.6.1.1 Boosting immune system
		1.6.2 Innocuous attributes of honey
	1.7 Conclusion
	References
2. Botanical (melissopalynological) and geographical analysis of honey
	2.1 Introduction
	2.2 Methodologies to establish botanical and geographical authenticity
		2.2.1 Melissopalynology
			2.2.1.1 Melissopalynological characterization of the acacia honey
			2.2.1.2 Melissopalynological characterization of the avocado honey
			2.2.1.3 Melissopalynological characterization of the clover honey
			2.2.1.4 Melissopalynological characterization of the heather honeys
			2.2.1.5 Melissopalynological characterization of the citrus honey
			2.2.1.6 Melissopalynological characterization of the Greek pine honey
		2.2.2 Chemical markers
			2.2.2.1 Amino acids and proteins
			2.2.2.2 Carbohydrates
		2.2.3 Chromatographic techniques
		2.2.4 Mass spectrometry
		2.2.5 Infrared spectroscopy
		2.2.6 Molecular techniques
	2.3 Problems and issues related to establishing honey authenticity based on botanical and geographical analysis
	2.4 Unifloral and multifloral honey based on botanical analysis and other quality parameters
	2.5 Conclusion and future prospects
	References
3. A comprehensive introduction to honey adulteration
	3.1 Introduction
	3.2 Status of honey adulteration
	3.3 Commonly honey adulterants
		3.3.1 Direct adulterants
		3.3.2 Indirect honey adulteration
		3.3.3 Cane syrup
		3.3.4 Corn syrup
		3.3.5 Palm syrup
		3.3.6 Invert syrup
		3.3.7 Rice syrup
		3.3.8 Malt syrup
		3.3.9 Resin technology
	3.4 Effect of various adulterants on honey’s physio-chemical, functional, antioxidant, and rheological properties
		3.4.1 Hydroxymethylfurfural content
		3.4.2 Diastase number
		3.4.3 Invertases number
		3.4.4 Functional and antioxidant properties
			3.4.4.1 Proline content
			3.4.4.2 Total phenol content and total flavonoid content
			3.4.4.3 Antioxidant properties
		3.4.5 Rheology
	3.5 Identification methods of honey adulteration
		3.5.1 Stable carbon isotope ratio analysis
		3.5.2 Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy
		3.5.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
		3.5.4 Infrared-based spectroscopy
		3.5.5 Raman spectroscopy for detecting honey adulteration
		3.5.6 High-performance thin-layer chromatography and thin layer chromatography
		3.5.7 DNA-based techniques
		3.5.8 Sensors for detecting honey adulteration
	3.6 Legal standards of honey around the globe
	3.7 Future recommendations
	3.8 Conclusion
	References
4. Physiochemical properties, bioactive compounds and aroma profile of honey
	4.1 Overview
	4.2 Nutritional characteristics of honeybees
	4.3 Chemical composition of honeybees
		4.3.1 Sugar content
		4.3.2 Water activity and water content
		4.3.3 Proteins
		4.3.4 Amino acids
		4.3.5 Enzymes
		4.3.6 Phenolic compounds
		4.3.7 Vitamins
		4.3.8 Pigments
		4.3.9 Lipids
	4.4 Biological properties of honey
		4.4.1 Antioxidant properties
		4.4.2 Antidiabetic effect
		4.4.3 Hypotensive and blood regulatory actions
	4.5 Applications of sonication on the properties of honey
	4.6 Applications of microwave irradiation on the properties of honey
	4.7 Conclusion
	Acknowledgment
	References
5. Microbial, thermal, and rheological analysis of honey
	5.1 Introduction
	5.2 Microbial analysis of honey
		5.2.1 Primary microbial community of honey
		5.2.2 Secondary contaminants and foodborne pathogens of honey
	5.3 Glass transition temperature of honey
		5.3.1 The concept of glass transition temperature (Tg)
		5.3.2 The determination of glass transition temperature of honey
	5.4 Rheological analysis of liquid honey
	5.5 Rheological analysis of crystallized honey
	5.6 Effect of different parameters on the rheology of honey
	5.7 Thermal properties of honey
	5.8 Conclusion
	References
6. Fluorescence and ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy in the honey analysis
	6.1 Introduction
	6.2 Physical characteristics
		6.2.1 Color
		6.2.2 Texture and consistency
	6.3 Chemical composition
		6.3.1 Moisture content
		6.3.2 Sugar composition
	6.4 Nutritional content
	6.5 Microbiological analysis
	6.6 Pollen analysis
	6.7 Residues and contaminants
	6.8 Adulteration detection
	6.9 Quality and authentication
	6.10 Regulatory compliance
	6.11 Spectroscopic analysis of honey
		6.11.1 Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy
		6.11.2 Infrared spectroscopy
		6.11.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
		6.11.4 Fluorescence spectroscopy
		6.11.5 Raman spectroscopy
		6.11.6 Mass spectrometry
		6.11.7 Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
		6.11.8 Fluorescence spectroscopy
			6.11.8.1 Mechanism
			6.11.8.2 Absorption
			6.11.8.3 Vibrational relaxation
			6.11.8.4 Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy
				6.11.8.4.1 Mechanism
				6.11.8.4.2 Beer–Lambert law
	6.12 Honey analysis using spectroscopic techniques
		6.12.1 Honey geographical and botanical origin authentication
			6.12.1.1 Isotopic analysis for authentication
			6.12.1.2 Real-time monitoring of honey fermentation
			6.12.1.3 Quantitative analysis of volatile compounds
	6.13 Multivariate data analysis for quality assessment
	6.14 Honey aging and storage studies
	6.15 Time-resolved spectroscopy for kinetic studies
	6.16 Honey traceability using stable isotopes
	6.17 In-depth profiling of honey polyphenols and antioxidants
	6.18 Fluorescence spectroscopy applications in honey analysis
	6.19 Honey adulteration
	6.20 Geographical origin identification of honey
	6.21 Honey botanical origin
	6.22 Honey characterization
	6.23 Front-face synchronous fluorescence spectroscopy
	6.24 Parallel factor analysis fluorescence spectroscopy
	6.25 Conclusions
	References
7. Infrared (IR) spectroscopy methods in honey analysis
	Abbreviations
	7.1 Introduction
	7.2 Infrared spectroscopy
		7.2.1 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
		7.2.2 Principles and instrumentation
	7.3 Near-infrared spectroscopy
	7.4 Attenuated total reflectance - Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
	7.5 Infrared spectroscopy and multivariate data analysis
	7.6 Infrared spectroscopy in honey authentication analysis
	7.7 Infrared spectroscopy in honey adulteration analysis
	7.8 Infrared spectroscopy in honey characterization analysis
	7.9 Infrared spectroscopy in honey quality
	7.10 Infrared spectroscopy in contaminant analyses of honey
	7.11 Infrared spectroscopy for the freshness of honey
	7.12 Limitation of infrared technologies in honey analyses
	7.13 Conclusion
	References
8. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy in honey analysis
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy
		8.2.1 Nuclear magnetic resonance instrumentation
			8.2.1.1 The magnet
			8.2.1.2 The probe
			8.2.1.3 The console
			8.2.1.4 The computer
		8.2.2 Principal of light absorption
	8.3 Reasons for the adoption of nuclear magnetic resonance in honey analysis
	8.4 Application of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the honey characterization
	8.5 Application of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the honey authentication and adulteration
	8.6 Conclusions
	References
9. Raman spectroscopy methods in honey characterization, authentication and adulteration
	Abbreviations
	9.1 Introduction
		9.1.1 Raman spectroscopy
			9.1.1.1 Theory
			9.1.1.2 Principle of light absorption
			9.1.1.3 Brief instrumentation
				9.1.1.3.1 Monochromatic light source
				9.1.1.3.2 Wavelength separation devices
				9.1.1.3.3 Detector
		9.1.2 Raman spectroscopy and chemometric analysis
		9.1.3 Raman spectroscopy in honey authentication analysis
		9.1.4 Raman spectroscopy in honey adulteration analysis
			9.1.4.1 Process methodology
		9.1.5 Raman spectroscopy in the honey characterization
	9.2 Conclusion
	References
10. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with associated column and mass spectroscopic methods for honey analysis
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 High-performance liquid chromatography
		10.2.1 Theory
		10.2.2 Principles of separation and brief instrumentation
		10.2.3 High-performance liquid chromatography-based hyphenated techniques
	10.3 High-performance liquid chromatography in honey authentication and adulteration analysis
		10.3.1 Biomolecules
		10.3.2 Antibiotics
		10.3.3 Pesticides
		10.3.4 Food additives
	10.4 High-performance liquid chromatography in honey characterization
		10.4.1 Amino acids
		10.4.2 Carbohydrates
		10.4.3 Vitamins
		10.4.4 Phytochemicals
	10.5 Conclusion
	References
11. Analysis of volatile organic compounds in honey using gas chromatography and mass spectrometry
	11.1 Introduction
	11.2 Volatile organic compounds in honey
	11.3 Fundamentals of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry
		11.3.1 Gas chromatography
			11.3.1.1 Theory
			11.3.1.2 Principal of separation
			11.3.1.3 Brief instrumentation
		11.3.2 Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
			11.3.2.1 Theory
			11.3.2.2 Principal of separation
			11.3.2.3 Brief instrumentation (background of the instrument)
				11.3.2.3.1 Ionizer
				11.3.2.3.2 Mass/ion analyzer
				11.3.2.3.3 Detector
	11.4 Honey authentication using gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
	11.5 Determination of honey adulteration by using gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry
	11.6 Conclusion
	References
	Further reading
12. Analysis of heavy metals as contaminants in honey
	12.1 Introduction
	12.2 Honey as a heavy metal indicator
	12.3 Analytical techniques for the determination of heavy metals in honey
	12.4 Heavy metal content of honey according to botanical and geographical origin
	12.5 Conclusions and future perspectives
	References
	Further reading
13. Stable isotopes methods
	13.1 Introduction
	13.2 Classification of plants based on photosynthesis and biosynthesis of sweeteners
		13.2.1 Polysaccharide-bearing plants
		13.2.2 Photosynthesis and biosynthesis of sweeteners
			13.2.2.1 Sucrose from sugar beet
			13.2.2.2 Sugar cane
			13.2.2.3 Palms
			13.2.2.4 Maples
			13.2.2.5 Sorghum
			13.2.2.6 Mahua or Mowrah tree
			13.2.2.7 Manna
			13.2.2.8 Stevia
	13.3 Importance of carbon isotope ratio in relation to honey adulteration
		13.3.1 Elemental analyzer isotope ratio mass spectrometry
			13.3.1.1 LC-IRMS
			13.3.1.2 GC-IRMS
			13.3.1.3 Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry
			13.3.1.4 High-pressure liquid chromatography with diode array detector
	13.4 Conclusion
	References
14. Analytical techniques to identify antibiotics and pesticides in honey
	14.1 Introduction
	14.2 Antibiotics in honey
	14.3 Pesticides in honey
	14.4 Analytical techniques for identifying antibiotics in honey
		14.4.1 High-performance liquid chromatography
		14.4.2 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay technique
		14.4.3 Charm II test
		14.4.4 Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry techniques
	14.5 Analytical techniques for identifying pesticides in honey
		14.5.1 Gas chromatography
		14.5.2 Liquid chromatography
		14.5.3 High-performance liquid chromatography techniques
			14.5.3.1 Chemicals
			14.5.3.2 Apparatus
			14.5.3.3 High-performance liquid chromatography analysis
		14.5.4 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
			14.5.4.1 Chemicals
			14.5.4.2 Apparatus
			14.5.4.3 Procedure
	14.6 Regulation
	14.7 Conclusion
	References
Index
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