Advanced Hybrid Powertrains for Commercial Vehicles

Cover
Table of Contents
Preface of the Second Edition
Preface of the First Edition
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgments of the First Edition
About the Authors
Chapter 1 Introduction of Hybrid Powertrains for
Commercial Vehicles
	1.1 Introduction
	1.2 History of Commercial Vehicles
	1.3 Commercial Vehicle Classification
		1.3.1 Commercial Vehicle Classification in the US
		1.3.2 Commercial Vehicle Classification in Europe
		1.3.3 Commercial Vehicle Classification in China
	1.4 Energy Consumption of Commercial Vehicles
		1.4.1 Energy Demand of Commercial Vehicles
		1.4.2 On-Road Heavy-Duty Commercial Vehicles
		1.4.3 Medium-Duty Trucks
		1.4.4 Transit Buses
	1.5 Drivers of the Efficient Powertrain for Commercial Vehicles
		1.5.1 Fuel Prices and Energy Security
		1.5.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Fuel Economy Regulations
			1.5.2.1 Background of Greenhouse Gases
			1.5.2.2 CO 2 Emissions by Commercial Vehicles
			1.5.2.3 GHG Emission Regulations and Fuel Economy Standards for Commercial Vehicles
		1.5.3 Commercial Vehicle Exhaust Emissions
			1.5.3.1 On-Road Vehicle Emission Standards
			1.5.3.2 Off-Road Vehicles
			1.5.3.3 Low-Emissions Zones
			1.5.3.4 No-Idling Laws
	1.6 Classification of Commercial Vehicle Hybrid Powertrains
		1.6.1 Types of Energy Storage
			1.6.1.1 Electric Hybrid
			1.6.1.2 Hydraulic Hybrid
			1.6.1.3 Pneumatic Hybrid
			1.6.1.4 Mechanical (Flywheel) Hybrid
		1.6.2 Hybrid Architecture
			1.6.2.1 Parallel Hybrid
			1.6.2.2 Series Hybrid
			1.6.2.3 Power-Split Hybrid
			1.6.2.4 Plug-In PHEV
			1.6.2.5 Range Extender Hybrid Vehicle
			1.6.2.6 In-Wheel Motors
			1.6.2.7 Dedicated Hybrid Transmission
		1.6.3 Hybrid Classification by Function
			1.6.3.1 Mild Hybrid
			1.6.3.2 Power Assist Hybrid
			1.6.3.3 Full Hybrid
		1.6.4 Fuel Cell Hybrid Vehicle
		1.6.5 Hybrid Vehicles by Application
	References
Chapter 2 Internal Combustion
Engines for Commercial Vehicles
	2.1 Requirements of Internal Combustion Engines for Commercial Vehicles
		2.1.1 Size and Weight
		2.1.2 Performance
			2.1.2.1 Fuel Economy
			2.1.2.2 Power
			2.1.2.3 Torque
		2.1.3 Reliability and Durability
		2.1.4 Meeting Government Emissions Regulations
	2.2 Basics of IC Engines
		2.2.1 History of IC Engines for Commercial Vehicles
		2.2.2 Basic Operations of IC Engines
			2.2.2.1 Intake
			2.2.2.2 Compression
			2.2.2.3 Power
			2.2.2.4 Exhaust
		2.2.3 Otto and Diesel Cycles
		2.2.4 Atkinson and Miller Cycles
	2.3 Major Engine Components and Subsystems
		2.3.1 Diesel Fuel Injection System
		2.3.2 Turbocharger
		2.3.3 EGR System
		2.3.4 Engine Electronic Control Module
		2.3.5 Exhaust Gas Aftertreatment Systems
			2.3.5.1 Diesel Oxidation Catalyst
			2.3.5.2 Selective Catalytic Reduction
			2.3.5.3 NO x Adsorber Catalyst
			2.3.5.4 Diesel Particulate Filter
	2.4 Engine Operating Characteristics
		2.4.1 Indicated Power
		2.4.2 Mechanical Efficiency
		2.4.3 Indicated Mean Effective Pressure
		2.4.4 Brake Mean Effective Pressure
		2.4.5 Specific Fuel Consumption
		2.4.6 Torque/Engine Speed Characteristics
	2.5 Advanced Engine Technologies
		2.5.1 Low-Temperature Combustion
		2.5.2 Advanced Boost Technologies
		2.5.3 Electric Turbocompounding
		2.5.4 Hybrid LNT/SCR Aftertreatment Technologies
		2.5.5 VVA Technology for Heavy-Duty Diesel Engines
		2.5.6 Summary of Thermal Efficiency Improvement
	References
Chapter 3 Introduction of Clutches and Transmissions for
Commercial Vehicles
	3.1 Background of Transmissions
	3.2 Key Characteristics of Vehicle ­Transmissions
		3.2.1 Power Requirement
		3.2.2 Matching the Engine and Transmission
			3.2.2.1 Transmission Ratio
			3.2.2.2 Top Gear Ratio
			3.2.2.3 Minimum Gear Ratio
			3.2.2.4 Intermediate Gear Ratio
			3.2.2.5 Matching Engine and Transmission
	3.3 Key Components of Commercial ­Vehicle Drivetrains
		3.3.1 Friction Clutch
		3.3.2 Torque Converter
		3.3.3 Planetary Gear Set
		3.3.4 Compound Planetary Gear Sets
	3.4 Manual Transmission
	3.5 Automated Manual Transmission
	3.6 Dual-Clutch Transmission
	3.7 Fully Automatic Transmission
	3.8 CVTs for Commercial Vehicles
		3.8.1 Mechanical CVT
		3.8.2 Hydrostatic CVT
		3.8.3 Electric CVT
		3.8.4 Magnetic CVT
	3.9 Characteristics and ­Efficiency of Commercial Vehicle ­Transmissions
	References
Chapter 4 Energy Storage Systems: Battery, Ultracapacitor, Accumulator, and Flywheel
	4.1 Energy Storage Systems for Commercial Hybrid Applications
		4.1.1 Hybrid Vehicle ESS Operating Requirements
	4.2 Electrical Chemical Battery
		4.2.1 Fundamentals of Electrochemical Cells
			4.2.1.1 Thermodynamic Voltage
			4.2.1.2 Battery Capacity
			4.2.1.3 Specific Energy and Specific Power
		4.2.2 Lead-Acid Battery
		4.2.3 Nickel Metal Hydride
		4.2.4 Li-Ion Battery
		4.2.5 Supercapacitor
		4.2.6 Battery/Supercapacitor Hybrid ESSs
		4.2.7 Solid-State Battery
	4.3 Battery Management Systems
		4.3.1 Cell Protection
		4.3.2 Battery State of Charge
			4.3.2.1 Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV) Method
			4.3.2.2 Coulomb Counting Method
			4.3.2.3 Adaptive Methods
		4.3.3 Cell Balancing
			4.3.3.1 Charge Shunting
			4.3.3.2 Charge Shuttling
			4.3.3.3 Energy Converters
		4.3.4 Battery Thermal Management
	4.4 Hydraulic Energy Storage
		4.4.1 Background of Hydraulic Accumulators
		4.4.2 Types of Hydraulic Accumulators
			4.4.2.1 Bladder Accumulators
			4.4.2.2 Diaphragm Accumulators
			4.4.2.3 Piston Accumulators
			4.4.2.4 Metal Bellows Accumulators
		4.4.3 Application of Hydraulic Accumulators
	4.5 Flywheel Energy Storage
		4.5.1 Mechanical Flywheels
		4.5.2 Electric Flywheels
		4.5.3 Applications to Vehicles
	4.6 Hydrogen Storage
		4.6.1 Compressed Gas
		4.6.2 Liquid Hydrogen
		4.6.3 Cold/Cryo Compression
		4.6.4 Metal–Organic Framework
		4.6.5 Interstitial Hydrides
		4.6.6 Complex Hydrides
		4.6.7 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers
		4.6.8 Chemical Hydrogen
	References
Chapter 5 Hybrid-Electric System Design and Optimization
	5.1 Characteristics of Hybrid-Electric Powertrains
		5.1.1 User Requirements
			5.1.1.1 Economics
			5.1.1.2 Performance
			5.1.1.3 Auxiliary Features
		5.1.2 Driving Cycles
	5.2 Hybrid System Architectures
		5.2.1 Parallel Hybrid System
			5.2.1.1 Parallel Hybrid System Energy Flows
		5.2.2 Series Hybrid System
		5.2.3 Dual-Mode Hybrid System
		5.2.4 Mild Hybrid with Start-Stop, Launch Assist, and Regenerative Braking
		5.2.5 Hybrid Electric Vehicle Pre- and Post-transmission
		5.2.6 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles
		5.2.7 In-Wheel Motor Hybrid Electric Vehicles
	5.3 Hybrid System Selection
		5.3.1 Electric Motor/Generator Selection
			5.3.1.1 Motor/Generator Sizing
		5.3.2 Energy Storage System Selection
			5.3.2.1 Battery Sizing
		5.3.3 Electrical System Voltage
		5.3.4 Thermal Management
	5.4 Hybrid System Optimization
		5.4.1 Static Optimization
		5.4.2 Dynamic Programming
		5.4.3 Optimization of Hybrid System Configuration and Operation
	References
Chapter 6 Hybrid-Electric Power Conversion Systems
	6.1 Basic Three-Phase Motor Theory
	6.2 Basic Power Inverter Design and Operation
	6.3 Basic Motor/Generator Designs
		6.3.1 Induction Motor/Generator
		6.3.2 PM Motor/Generator
		6.3.3 Switched Reluctance Motor/Generator
		6.3.4 Axial Flux Motor/Generator
	6.4 Stator Design
		6.4.1 Distributed Winding
		6.4.2 Concentrated Pole Construction
	6.5 Rotor Design
		6.5.1 Squirrel Cage Rotor
		6.5.2 Wound Rotor
		6.5.3 PM Rotor
			6.5.3.1 Surface-Mounted PMs
			6.5.3.2 Interior-Mounted PM Rotor
	6.6 Electric Motor Power Density
		6.6.1 Temperature
		6.6.2 Copper Losses
		6.6.3 Iron Losses
		6.6.4 Motor Speed
		6.6.5 Cooling
	6.7 Electric Motor Characteristics
		6.7.1 Power and Torque Characteristics
		6.7.2 System Level Voltage
		6.7.3 Back EMF
		6.7.4 Torque Ripple
		6.7.5 Cogging Torque
	6.8 Motor Control
		6.8.1 Controls in Healthy State
		6.8.2 Fault Tolerant Controls
	References
Chapter 7 Hydraulic Hybrid Powertrain System Design
	7.1 Introduction
		7.1.1 The Hydrostatic Transmission
			7.1.1.1 Configurations
			7.1.1.2 Classification of Hydrostatic Transmissions
			7.1.1.3 Operating Characteristics of Hydrostatic Transmissions
		7.1.2 Hydrostatic Regenerative Braking
		7.1.3 User Requirements
	7.2 Hydraulic Hybrid System Architecture
		7.2.1 Parallel Hydraulic Hybrid Systems
		7.2.2 Series Hydraulic Hybrid Systems
		7.2.3 Multimode and Split Power-Flow Hydraulic Hybrid Systems
	7.3 Design and Specification of Hydraulic Hybrid Systems
		7.3.1 Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
			7.3.1.1 Sizing of Pumps and Motors
			7.3.1.2 Performance of Pumps and Motors
		7.3.2 Hydraulic Accumulators
			7.3.2.1 Sizing of Accumulators
			7.3.2.2 Performance of Gas Accumulators
		7.3.3 Hydraulic Lines and Other Components
		7.3.4 Fluid Conditioning
		7.3.5 Noise and Vibration
	7.4 Examples of Systems at or near ­Production Application
		7.4.1 Refuse Collection Vehicles
		7.4.2 Package Delivery Vehicles
		7.4.3 Multimode Split Power-Flow System in a Warehouse Vehicle
	References
Chapter 8 Hydraulic Components and Controls
	8.1 Introduction
	8.2 Hydraulic Pumps and Motors
		8.2.1 Gear Pumps and Motors
			8.2.1.1 External Gear Units
			8.2.1.2 Internal Gear Units
		8.2.2 Vane Pumps and Motors
		8.2.3 Piston Pumps and Motors
		8.2.4 Axial Piston Pump/Motors
			8.2.4.1 Swash Plate Pump/Motors
			8.2.4.2 Bent-Axis Pump/Motors
		8.2.5 Radial Piston Pump/Motors
			8.2.5.1 Fixed-Capacity Radial Piston Unit with Static Pistons
			8.2.5.2 Variable-Displacement Radial Piston Machines
			8.2.5.3 Radial Piston Motors with External Cam
		8.2.6 Considerations of Pump/Motor Performance and Noise
			8.2.6.1 Pump and Motor Efficiency
			8.2.6.2 Cavitation
			8.2.6.3 Pump Outlet Flow
			8.2.6.4 Compressibility Considerations
			8.2.6.5 Noise Considerations
	8.3 Valves
		8.3.1 Automatic Valves
		8.3.2 Isolation Valves
		8.3.3 Control Valves
	8.4 Pipes and Fittings
		8.4.1 High-Pressure Lines
		8.4.2 Low-Pressure/Return Lines
		8.4.3 Hydraulic Fittings
	8.5 Hydraulic Oils and Related Systems
		8.5.1 Oil Characteristics
		8.5.2 Fluid Conditioning
			8.5.2.1 Contamination
			8.5.2.2 Cleanliness Requirements
			8.5.2.3 Filtration
		8.5.3 System Thermal Management
	8.6 Control Units and Transducers
		8.6.1 System Control Units
		8.6.2 Transducers
	References
Chapter 9 Fuel-Cell Hybrid
Powertrain Systems
	9.1 Fuel-Cell Hybrid Powertrain
	9.2 Operating Principles of Fuel Cells
	9.3 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells for Commercial Vehicles
		9.3.1 How the PEM Fuel-Cell Works
		9.3.2 PEMFC System for Commercial Vehicles
		9.3.3 PEM Fuel Cell Vehicle Performance and Development
	9.4 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) and Range Extender
		9.4.1 How Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Work
		9.4.2 SOFC System for Vehicle Applications
			9.4.2.1 SOFC APU
			9.4.2.2 Hybrid ICE/SOFC Powertrain
			9.4.2.3 SOFC Range Extender Electric Vehicle
	References
Chapter 10 Commercial Vehicle
Electrification
	10.1 Introduction
	10.2 Idle Reduction Technologies
		10.2.1 Diesel Auxiliary Power Unit
		10.2.2 Fuel Cell APU
			10.2.2.1 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
			10.2.2.2 PEM Fuel Cell
		10.2.3 Microturbine APU
		10.2.4 Truck Stop Electrification
	10.3 Electrically Driven Boost System and Other Components
		10.3.1 Electrically Driven Turbocharging
		10.3.2 Electrically Driven Accessories
			10.3.2.1 Coolant Pump and Engine Cooling System
			10.3.2.2 Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning
			10.3.2.3 Compressed Air Module
			10.3.2.4 Power Steering
	10.4 Electrification for Plug-In Hybrid Commercial Vehicles
		10.4.1 Flexible Traction Drive System
		10.4.2 Flexible High-Voltage System Architecture
		10.4.3 Plug-In Hybrid Utility Vehicles
	10.5 External Charging and Plug-In Hybrid Commercial Vehicles
		10.5.1 Smart Grid
		10.5.2 Standards Development
			10.5.2.1 Vehicle-to-Grid Standards
			10.5.2.2 Home Communications
			10.5.2.3 Other Standards under Development
		10.5.3 Charging Infrastructure
			10.5.3.1 Level I and II Chargers
			10.5.3.2 DC Chargers
			10.5.3.3 Battery Swapping Stations
			10.5.3.4 Electric Highway
	References
Chapter 11 Hybrid Powertrain System Modeling, Simulation,
Validation, and Certification
	11.1 Model-Based Control System ­Development
		11.1.1 PSAT
		11.1.2 Dymola
		11.1.3 ADVISOR
		11.1.4 HIL and MIL
		11.1.5 Dynamic Modeling Approach
	11.2 Models for Hybrid-Electric ­Powertrains of Commercial Vehicles
		11.2.1 Supervisory Powertrain Controller
		11.2.2 Driver Model
		11.2.3 Powertrain Subsystem Models
			11.2.3.1 Internal Combustion Engine
			11.2.3.2 Fuel Cell System
			11.2.3.3 Electric Motors and Generators
			11.2.3.4 Electric Energy Storage System
		11.2.4 Transmission Model
		11.2.5 Drivetrain and Vehicle Subsystem
	11.3 Dynamic Modeling of Hybrid-­Electric Powertrain System
		11.3.1 Gear Shifting Schedule
		11.3.2 Power Split Control for Parallel Hybrid System
		11.3.3 Charge Sustaining Strategy
		11.3.4 Intelligent Power Management Using GPS Information
		11.3.5 Simulation Results and Performance Evaluation
	11.4 System Control and Optimization for Hydraulic Hybrid Vehicles
		11.4.1 Hydraulic Accumulator
		11.4.2 Hydraulic Pump/Motors
		11.4.3 Power Management Strategy
		11.4.4 Simulation Model and Results
	11.5 Model-Based Test and Validation
		11.5.1 Dynamometer Test
		11.5.2 Road Test
	11.6 Hybrid Vehicle Certification
		11.6.1 Engine Dynamometer
		11.6.2 Chassis Dynamometer
		11.6.3 Power Pack Testing
		11.6.4 Track Testing
		11.6.5 Simulation-Based Certification
		11.6.6 Certifications of Commercial Vehicles in the United States
		11.6.7 Certification of Hybrid Powertrains for Commercial Vehicles
		11.6.8 Safety Design Overview
	References
Chapter 12 Future Powertrain
Technologies for Commercial Vehicles
	12.1 Introduction
		12.1.1 Sustainability and Environment Concerns
		12.1.2 Government Regulations
			12.1.2.1 USA Regulation
			12.1.2.2 European Regulation
			12.1.2.3 China Regulation
	12.2 Intelligent Transportation System
		12.2.1 Vehicle Platooning
		12.2.2 Multimodal Transportation
			12.2.2.1 Transportation Hubs
			12.2.2.2 Dedicated Rights-of-Way
			12.2.2.3 Efficient Mode Switching
			12.2.2.4 Land-Use
			12.2.2.5 Local Feeder Routes
		12.2.3 Smart Grid and Communication Infrastructure
	12.3 Vehicle Autonomy
		12.3.1 History of Vehicle Autonomy
		12.3.2 Artificial Intelligence for AD
		12.3.3 Architectural Autonomy System
		12.3.4 Perception
			12.3.4.1 Sensors
				12.3.4.1.1 Camera.
				12.3.4.1.2 LIDAR.
				12.3.4.1.3 Radar.
				12.3.4.1.4 Ultrasonic Sensors (SONAR).
			12.3.4.2 Sensing Fusion
		12.3.5 Planning
		12.3.6 Controls
		12.3.7 Safety and Security
	12.4 Future Powertrain Technologies for Commercial Vehicles
		12.4.1 Future Powertrain Technologies
		12.4.2 System Solutions and Sustainable Transportation
			12.4.2.1 Sustainable Transports for Smart City
			12.4.2.2 Sustainable Synergistic Transportation
	References
Index