Advanced Dairy Chemistry, Volume 2: Lipids

Preface to the Fourth Edition
Preface to the Third Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Contents
Contributors
1: Composition and Structure of Bovine Milk Lipids
	1.1	 Introduction
	1.2	 Fatty Acids
		1.2.1	 Origins of the Fatty Acids
		1.2.2	 Saturated Fatty Acids
		1.2.3	 Cis-Unsaturated Fatty Acids
		1.2.4	 Trans-Unsaturated Fatty Acids
		1.2.5	 Minor Fatty Acids
		1.2.6	 Variations in Fatty Acid Composition
	1.3	 Triacylglycerols
		1.3.1	 Structure of Triacylglycerols
		1.3.2	 Composition of Triacylglycerols
	1.4	 Polar Lipids
		1.4.1	 Composition and Structure
		1.4.2	 Ceramides and Gangliosides
		1.4.3	 Health Issues
	1.5	 Minor Constituents
		1.5.1	 Sterols
		1.5.2	 Carotenoids
		1.5.3	 Fat-Soluble Vitamins
		1.5.4	 Flavour Compounds
	1.6	 Milk Fat from Different Animal Species
		1.6.1	 Gross Composition
		1.6.2	 Fatty Acids
		1.6.3	 Triacylglycerols
		1.6.4	 Polar Lipids
	References
2: Origin of Fatty Acids and Influence of Nutritional Factors on Milk Fat
	2.1	 Introduction
	2.2	 Origin of the Fatty Acids in Milk Fat
		2.2.1	 Overview
		2.2.2	 Mammary Uptake of Fatty Acids
		2.2.3	 Lipoprotein Lipase
		2.2.4	 Transport of Long-Chain Fatty Acids into Mammary Cells
		2.2.5	 Summary of the Supply of Long-Chain Fatty Acids to the Mammary Gland
	2.3	 Uptake of Non-lipid Metabolites by Lactating Mammary Glands
	2.4	 Fatty Acid Synthesis in Mammary Glands
		2.4.1	 Sources of Carbon and Reducing Equivalents for Fatty Acid Synthesis
		2.4.2	 Acetyl-CoA Carboxylase
		2.4.3	 Fatty Acid Synthase
		2.4.4	 Regulation of Acyl Chain Length
			2.4.4.1	 Elongation of C16 Acyl Chains
	2.5	 Stearoyl CoA Desaturase
	2.6	 Triacylglycerol Synthesis
		2.6.1	 Fatty Acid Esterification by the Monoacylglycerol Pathway
	2.7	 Synthesis of Complex Lipids
		2.7.1	 Synthesis of Phospholipids
		2.7.2	 Sphingolipids
		2.7.3	 Cholesterol
	2.8	 Milk Fat Globular Membrane and Fat Secretion
	2.9	 Physiological Factors that Influence Milk Fat Composition
		2.9.1	 Genetics
		2.9.2	 Stage of Lactation
		2.9.3	 Daily Patterns and Circadian Rhythms
		2.9.4	 Seasonal Rhythms
	2.10	 Effects of Dietary Fat on Composition of Milk Fat
		2.10.1	 Effects of Low-Fat Diets
		2.10.2	 Effects of Specific Fatty Acids
		2.10.3	 Feeding for Specific Milk Fatty Acid Profiles
		2.10.4	 Supplementation with Oilseeds and Commercial Fats
		2.10.5	 Low Milk Fat Syndrome
		2.10.6	 Milk Fat Composition and Quality
	References
3: Conjugated Linoleic Acid: Biosynthesis and Nutritional Significance
	3.1	 Introduction
	3.2	 Dietary Sources
	3.3	 Analytical Challenges
	3.4	 Origin of CLA in Milk Fat
		3.4.1	 Lipid Metabolism in the Rumen
		3.4.2	 cis-9, trans-11 CLA (Rumenic Acid)
		3.4.3	 trans-7, cis-9 CLA
		3.4.4	 The Δ9-Desaturase Enzyme System
		3.4.5	 Other CLA Isomers
	3.5	 Modification of CLA in Milk Fat
		3.5.1	 Dietary and Nutritional Effects
		3.5.2	 Physiological Factors
		3.5.3	 Manufacturing and Product Quality Considerations
	3.6	 Biological Effects of CLA Isomers
		3.6.1	 trans-10, cis-12 CLA and Lipid Metabolism
			3.6.1.1	 Inhibition of Milk Fat Synthesis
			3.6.1.2	 Relationship to Diet-Induced Milk Fat Depression
			3.6.1.3	 Use as a Management Tool
		3.6.2	 Rumenic Acid and Human Health
			3.6.2.1	 Cancer
			3.6.2.2	 Atherosclerosis
	Bibliography
4: Intracellular Origin of Milk Fat Globules, Composition and Structure of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane Highlighting the Specific Role of Sphingomyelin
	4.1	 Introduction
	4.2	 Intracellular Origin and Secretion of Milk Fat Globules
	4.3	 Composition of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane and Biophysical Properties of Polar Lipids
		4.3.1	 Composition
			4.3.1.1	 Protein Composition
			4.3.1.2	 Lipid Composition
		4.3.2	 Biophysical Properties of Milk Polar Lipids: Specific Roles of Sphingomyelin and Cholesterol
			4.3.2.1	 Thermotropic and Structural Behavior of Saturated MFGM Polar Lipids
			4.3.2.2	 Attractive Interactions Between Milk-Sphingomyelin and Cholesterol
	4.4	 Structure of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane: New Scientific Advances Highlighting the Role of Sphingomyelin in the Formation of Ordered Domains
		4.4.1	 Membrane-Specific Proteins Inserted in a Trilayer of Polar Lipids
		4.4.2	 Ordered Lipid Domains Rich in Sphingomyelin and the Heterogeneous Distribution of Proteins Observed In Situ in the MFGM Around Fat Globules
		4.4.3	 Topography and Mechanical Properties of MFGM Model Membranes Examined with Nanoscale Resolution
			4.4.3.1	 Milk-Sphingomyelin Molecules Are Responsible for Topographical and Mechanical Heterogeneities in Membranes
			4.4.3.2	 Milk Polar Lipid Membranes Exhibit Topographical and Mechanical Heterogeneity due to the Formation of Milk-Sphingomyelin-Rich Domains
			4.4.3.3	 Temperature Governs the Physical State of Polar Lipids with Consequences on the Topography and Mechanical Properties of the Membrane
			4.4.3.4	 Cholesterol Molecules Affect the Topography and the Mechanical Properties of Membranes: Condensing and Fluidizing Effects
	4.5	 Updated Model of the MFGM Organization Highlighting the Main Role of Sphingomyelin in Topographical and Mechanical Heterogeneities
	4.6	 Perspectives
	References
5: Physical Chemistry of Milk Fat Globules
	5.1	 Introduction
	5.2	 The Nature and Size Distribution of Milk Fat Globules
	5.3	 Differences in the Composition of Milk Fat Globules
	5.4	 Fat Crystals in Globules
	5.5	 Colloidal Interactions
	5.6	 Separation of Milk
	5.7	 Physical Instability of Emulsions
	5.8	 Analytical Methods for Evaluating Creaming of Milk
	5.9	 Cold Agglutination
	5.10	 Coalescence and Partial Coalescence
	5.11	 Rebodying
	5.12	 Factors That Affect the Surface Layers of Fat Globules in Milk and Cream
	5.13	 Disruption of Globules
	5.14	 Milk Fat Globules in Homogenized Milk and Cream
	5.15	 Milk Fat Globules in Recombined Milk
	5.16	 Free Fat
	5.17	 Influence of Fat Globules on Rheological Properties of Milk and Cream
		5.17.1	 Dispersed Phase Volume Fraction
		5.17.2	 Rheology of the Component Phases
		5.17.3	 Droplet Size
		5.17.4	 Colloidal Interactions
		5.17.5	 Particle Charge Interactions
	5.18	 Conclusions
	References
6: Composition, Fractionation, Techno-Functional Properties and Applications of Milk Fat Globule Membrane–Derived Material
	6.1	 Introduction
	6.2	 Composition of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane
		6.2.1	 Milk Fat Globules and Milk Fat Globule Membrane
		6.2.2	 Structure of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane
		6.2.3	 Phospholipids of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane
		6.2.4	 Proteins of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane
	6.3	 Fractionation of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane
		6.3.1	 Laboratory Scale
		6.3.2	 Industrial Scale
		6.3.3	 Sources of Milk Fat Globule Membrane–Derived Material
	6.4	 Effects of Milk Processing Unit Operations on Milk Fat Globule Membrane Constituents
		6.4.1	 Homogenisation and Churning
		6.4.2	 Thermal Processing
		6.4.3	 Drying
	6.5	 Techno-Functionality and Applications of Milk Fat Globule Membrane–Derived Material
		6.5.1	 Milk and Whey Phospholipid-Enriched Products
	6.6	 Conclusions
	References
7: Milk Fat: Chemical and Physical Modification
	7.1	 Introduction
	7.2	 Physical Modification of Milk Fat
		7.2.1	 Crystallisation of Milk Fat
		7.2.2	 Fractionation of Milk Fat
		7.2.3	 Technologies and Approaches for Milk Fat Fractionation and Processing
			7.2.3.1	 Dry Fractionation
			7.2.3.2	 Wet Fractionation
			7.2.3.3	 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
			7.2.3.4	 Short-Path Distillation
			7.2.3.5	 Ultrasound Processing
		7.2.4	 Factors Affecting Fractionation
			7.2.4.1	 Cooling Rate
			7.2.4.2	 Fractionation Temperature
		7.2.5	 Chemical Composition of Milk Fat Fractions
		7.2.6	 Applications of Fractionated Milk Products
	7.3	 Effects of Minor Lipid Components on Milk Fat Crystallisation
	7.4	 Removal of Cholesterol
	7.5	 Chemical and Enzymatic Modification of Dairy Lipids
	7.6	 Conclusion
	References
8: Crystallization and Rheological Properties of Milk Fat
	8.1	 Introduction
	8.2	 Crystallization of Milk Fat
		8.2.1	 Nucleation of Milk Fat
		8.2.2	 Growth of Milk Fat Crystals
		8.2.3	 Crystallization and Melting
		8.2.4	 Polytypism and Polymorphism
		8.2.5	 Microstructure of Milk Fat Crystal Networks
		8.2.6	 Nanoscale Structure of Milk Fat
	8.3	 Rheology of Milk Fat Crystal Networks
		8.3.1	 Methods to Determine the Rheological Properties of Milk Fat
			8.3.1.1	 Small Deformation Rheological Testing of Milk Fat
			8.3.1.2	 Large Deformation Rheological Testing
			8.3.1.3	 Penetrometry-Based Testing
		8.3.2	 Rheology of Milk Fat
		8.3.3	 Modelling Milk Fat Rheology
		8.3.4	 Relating Structure to Rheology
	8.4	 Modifying the Crystallization and Rheological Properties of Milk Fat
		8.4.1	 Manipulating Composition
		8.4.2	 Manipulations During Processing
			8.4.2.1	 Cooling Rate
			8.4.2.2	 Churning and Shear
			8.4.2.3	 High-Intensity Ultrasound
	8.5	 Crystallization and Rheological Properties of Milk Fat Within Food Systems
		8.5.1	 Thermal Behaviour
		8.5.2	 Polytypism and Polymorphism
		8.5.3	 Solid Fat Content
		8.5.4	 Rheology
	8.6	 Conclusions
	Bibliography
9: Role of Milk Fat in Dairy Products
	9.1	 Role of Milk Fat in Butter
		9.1.1	 Milk Fat and the Milk Fat Globule Membrane (MFGM)
		9.1.2	 Buttermaking: Whipping of Cream
		9.1.3	 Cooling and Crystallization
		9.1.4	 Tempering of Milk Fat
		9.1.5	 Churning and Working the Butter Grains
		9.1.6	 Changes During Storage
		9.1.7	 Rheological Properties
		9.1.8	 Flavour and Aroma
	9.2	 Creams
		9.2.1	 Introduction
		9.2.2	 Coffee Cream
		9.2.3	 Whipping Cream
		9.2.4	 Cream Liqueurs
		9.2.5	 Cultured Cream
		9.2.6	 Recombined Cream
	9.3	 Role of Milk Fat in Dairy Products: Cheese
		9.3.1	 Milk Fat and Cheese Flavour
		9.3.2	 Milk Fat and Cheese Colour
		9.3.3	 Milk Fat and Cheese Texture
		9.3.4	 Milk Fat and Cheese Manufacture
		9.3.5	 Milk Fat and Cheese Melting
	9.4	 Role of Milk Fat in Ice Cream
		9.4.1	 Overview of Ice Cream Ingredients and Manufacture
		9.4.2	 Sources of Fat in Ice Cream
		9.4.3	 Contribution of Fat to the Structure of Ice Cream
		9.4.4	 Contribution of Fat to Ice Cream Texture and Flavour
	9.5	 Role of Milk Fat in Dairy Powders
		9.5.1	 Introduction
		9.5.2	 Commodity Dairy Powders
		9.5.3	 Milk- and Whey-Derived Ingredients
		9.5.4	 Impact of Fat on Powder Functionality
		9.5.5	 Conclusion
	9.6	 The Role of Lipids in Infant Milk Formula
		9.6.1	 Infant Formula: A Brief History
		9.6.2	 Human Milk Lipids and Their Influence on Infant Formula Design
			9.6.2.1	 Neutral Milk Lipids
				Fatty Acid Composition and the Use of Vegetable Oils
				Fatty Acid Positional Distribution
				The Recent Re-emergence of Milk Fat
			9.6.2.2	 Polar Lipids
			9.6.2.3	 Other Lipid Components: Carotenoids and Cholesterol
		9.6.3	 Future Perspectives
	9.7	 Milk Fat and Chocolate
		9.7.1	 Introduction
			9.7.1.1	 Milk Fat and Legislation of Chocolate
			9.7.1.2	 Milk Fat Ingredients in Chocolate
			9.7.1.3	 Free Versus Bound Milk Fat
			9.7.1.4	 Manufacture of Chocolate
		9.7.2	 The Role of Milk Fat in Chocolate
			9.7.2.1	 Effect of Milk Fat Composition Variation in Chocolate
			9.7.2.2	 Use of Milk Fat Fractions in Chocolate
		9.7.3	 Contribution of Milk Fat to Microstructure and Texture of Chocolate
			9.7.3.1	 Factors Affecting Crystallization of Milk Fat in Cocoa Butter
			9.7.3.2	 Microstructure in Relation to Processing Conditions
			9.7.3.3	 Eutectic Effect in Milk Fat–Cocoa Butter Blend
			9.7.3.4	 Minor Components in Milk Fat
		9.7.4	 Contribution of Milk Fat to Flavour of Chocolate
			9.7.4.1	 Off-Flavours from Milk Fat Ingredients
		9.7.5	 Bloom-Retarding Effect of Milk Fat in Chocolate
			9.7.5.1	 Cause and Mechanism of Migration Bloom?
			9.7.5.2	 Function of Milk Fat in Retarding Migration Bloom and Storage Bloom
			9.7.5.3	 Impact of Milk Fat in Processing Conditions
	References
		References for Section 9.1
		References for Section 9.2
		References for Section 9.3
		References for Section 9.4
		References for Section 9.5
		References for Section 9.6
		References for Section 9.7
10: Nutritional Significance of Milk Lipids: From Bioactive Fatty Acids to Supramolecular Structures Impacting Metabolism
	10.1	 Introduction
		10.1.1	 Milk Fatty Acids: From Specific Biochemical Functions to Physiological Effects and Nutritional Significance
		10.1.2	 Short- and Medium-Chain Saturated Fatty Acids
		10.1.3	 Long-Chain Saturated Fatty Acids
		10.1.4	 Odd-Chain and Branched-Chain Saturated Fatty Acids
		10.1.5	 Trans Fatty Acids (and CLAs)
			10.1.5.1	 Trans-Vaccenic Acid
			10.1.5.2	 Trans-Palmitoleic Acid
	10.2	 Milk Polar Lipids and the Milk Fat Globule Membrane
		10.2.1	 Effects of Milk Polar Lipids on Lipid Metabolism
		10.2.2	 Effects of Milk Polar Lipids on Gut Barrier Function
		10.2.3	 Bioactivity of Sphingolipids and Their Potential Metabolic Effects
		10.2.4	 Other Health Effects of Milk Polar Lipids
	10.3	 Milk Fat Structure: From the Impact of Milk Fat Globule Structure on Lipemia to the Dairy Matrix Concept in Nutrition
		10.3.1	 Potential Impact of Milk Fatty Acids and Triglyceride Structure on Digestion and Postprandial Lipemia
		10.3.2	 Milk Fat Globule and Milkfat Emulsified Structure: Impact on Digestion and Postprandial Metabolism and Metabolic Fate of Ingested Fatty Acids
		10.3.3	 Impact of Milk Fat in Different Dairy Matrices
	10.4	 Significance of Milk Fat Structure in Infant Nutrition
		10.4.1	 Recent Knowledge on Human Milk Composition and Structure
		10.4.2	 Specific Behavior of Human Milk Fat Globules During Digestion
		10.4.3	 Towards a Role of Milk Fat Globule Structure on Metabolic Programming
		10.4.4	 Metabolic Importance of Milk Triglycerides and MFGM for Infants
		10.4.5	 Towards a Role for Milk Sterols in Infant Blood Cholesterol Homeostasis
	10.5	 Conclusion and Future Prospects
	References
11: Stability and Spoilage of Lipids in Milk and Dairy Products
	11.1	 Introduction
	11.2	 Lipolysis
		11.2.1	 Background
		11.2.2	 Raw Milk
			11.2.2.1	 Lipoprotein Lipase
			11.2.2.2	 Spontaneous Lipolysis
			11.2.2.3	 Induced Lipolysis
		11.2.3	 Pasteurized and Extended-Shelf Life (ESL) Milk
		11.2.4	 UHT Milk
		11.2.5	 Dairy Products
			11.2.5.1	 Cheese
			11.2.5.2	 Butter
		11.2.6	 Analytical Methods
			11.2.6.1	 Free Fatty Acids
			11.2.6.2	 Lipase Activity
	11.3	 Oxidation
		11.3.1	 Background
		11.3.2	 Raw and Pasteurized Milk
			11.3.2.1	 Spontaneous Oxidation
			11.3.2.2	 Induced Oxidation
		11.3.3	 UHT Milk
		11.3.4	 Dairy Products
			11.3.4.1	 Cheese
			11.3.4.2	 Butter
			11.3.4.3	 Powders
		11.3.5	 Analytical Methods
	References
12: Physical Characterization of Milk Fat and Milk Fat-Based Products
	12.1	 Introduction
	12.2	 Thermal Properties: Phase Change Behaviour
		12.2.1	 Melting and Solidification Points: Introduction
		12.2.2	 Melting Points
			12.2.2.1	 Clear Point
			12.2.2.2	 Slip Point
			12.2.2.3	 Dropping Point
		12.2.3	 Solidification Points
			12.2.3.1	 Cloud Point
			12.2.3.2	 Congeal Point
		12.2.4	 Dilatometry
		12.2.5	 Differential Scanning Calorimetry
			12.2.5.1	 Specific Heat Capacity
			12.2.5.2	 Temperature and Heat of Transition
			12.2.5.3	 Solid Fat Content
			12.2.5.4	 Crystallization Kinetics
			12.2.5.5	 Adulteration
			12.2.5.6	 Polymorphism
		12.2.6	 X-Ray Diffraction
		12.2.7	 Combined DSC and XRD
		12.2.8	 Coupled DSC and XRD
		12.2.9	 Cooling Curves
		12.2.10	 Optical Methods
			12.2.10.1	 Light and Polarized Light Microscopy
			12.2.10.2	 Laser Light Diffraction Spectrophotometry
			12.2.10.3	 Visible Light Absorption Spectrophotometry
			12.2.10.4	 Visible Light Reflectometry
	12.3	 Thermal Properties: Critical Temperatures
	12.4	 Light Spectroscopy
		12.4.1	 Introduction to Light Spectroscopy and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
		12.4.2	 Light Spectrometers
		12.4.3	 UV-VIS Spectrometers
		12.4.4	 IR Spectrometers
		12.4.5	 NIR Spectroscopy
		12.4.6	 Fourier Transform NIR (FTIR)
		12.4.7	 Attenuated Total Reflection-FTIR (ATR-FTIR)
		12.4.8	 Raman Spectroscopy
		12.4.9	 Fluorescence Spectroscopy
	12.5	 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR)
		12.5.1	 Precession and Resonance
		12.5.2	 The Chemical Shift
		12.5.3	 Quantum Mechanics
		12.5.4	 The Vector Model
		12.5.5	 NMR Spectrometer
		12.5.6	 Relaxation
		12.5.7	 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
		12.5.8	 Solid Fat Content Determination
		12.5.9	 Relaxometry or Time-Domain NMR (TD-NMR)
		12.5.10	 NMR Spectroscopy
			12.5.10.1	 Milk Fat and Butter
			12.5.10.2	 Cheese
	12.6	 Ultrasound
		12.6.1	 Principles
		12.6.2	 Experimental Approaches
		12.6.3	 The Use of Ultrasound in the Analysis of High-Fat Dairy Foods
	12.7	 Rheological Techniques
		12.7.1	 Introduction
		12.7.2	 Rheological Behaviour and Material Classification
		12.7.3	 Rheological Characterization of Materials
		12.7.4	 Viscometers and the Measurement of Fundamental Viscous Properties
		12.7.5	 Solids Rheometers and the Measurement of Fundamental Elastic Properties
		12.7.6	 Measurement of Linear Viscoelastic Properties
		12.7.7	 Measurement of Non-linear Viscoelastic Properties
		12.7.8	 Measurement of Extensional Viscosity
		12.7.9	 Application of Rheological Techniques to Milk Fat and Milk Fat-Based Dairy Products
			12.7.9.1	 Milk Fat and Butter
			12.7.9.2	 Cheese
			12.7.9.3	 Cream
			12.7.9.4	 Ice Cream
			12.7.9.5	 Milk Chocolate
	12.8	 Density
	12.9	 Electromagnetic Properties
		12.9.1	 Refractive Index
		12.9.2	 Colour
		12.9.3	 Dielectric Properties
		12.9.4	 Electrical Conductivity
	12.10	 Functional Properties
		12.10.1	 Milk Fat and Butter
		12.10.2	 Ice Cream
		12.10.3	 Chocolate
		12.10.4	 Whole Milk Powders
	References
13: Analytical Methods
	13.1	 Introduction
	13.2	 Milk Fat Extraction and Proximate Analysis
		13.2.1	 Spectroscopic Methods
			13.2.1.1	 Infrared Spectroscopy
			13.2.1.2	 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrophotometry
			13.2.1.3	 Fluorescence Spectrometry
		13.2.2	 Physical Characterisation of Milk Fat
	13.3	 Fatty Acid Compositional Analysis
		13.3.1	 Fatty Acid Derivatisation
		13.3.2	 Gas Chromatography
			13.3.2.1	 Sample Injection
			13.3.2.2	 Gas Chromatography Columns
			13.3.2.3	 Analyte Detection
		13.3.3	 Other Approaches
			13.3.3.1	 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
			13.3.3.2	 Silver Ion Chromatography
			13.3.3.3	 Supercritical Fluid Chromatography
			13.3.3.4	 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
		13.3.4	 Free Fatty Acid Analysis
	13.4	 Analysis of Lipid Class and Species
		13.4.1	 High Performance Liquid Chromatography
			13.4.1.1	 Sample Preparation
			13.4.1.2	 Sample Injection
			13.4.1.3	 Liquid Chromatography Columns
			13.4.1.4	 Analyte Detection
		13.4.2	 Gas Chromatography
			13.4.2.1	 Regio- or Stereospecific Analysis of the Lipid Structure
		13.4.3	 Other Approaches
	13.5	 Analysis of the Milk Fat Globule Membrane Material
		13.5.1	 Polar Lipids
			13.5.1.1	 Sample Preparation
			13.5.1.2	 Polar Lipid Fractionation
			13.5.1.3	 Liquid Chromatography
			13.5.1.4	 Other Approaches
		13.5.2	 Membranous Proteins
			13.5.2.1	 Protein Extraction
			13.5.2.2	 Protein Solubilisation
		13.5.3	 Cholesterol
	13.6	 Analysis of Volatile Compounds
		13.6.1	 Gas Chromatography
			13.6.1.1	 Direct Injection
			13.6.1.2	 Headspace Analysis
			13.6.1.3	 Gas Chromatography Analysis Columns
			13.6.1.4	 Gas Chromatography Olfactometry
		13.6.2	 Other Approaches
	References
Index