Advanced Composite Materials for Automotive Applications: Structural Integrity and Crashworthiness

ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS FOR AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATIONS......Page 3
Contents......Page 7
About the Editor......Page 17
List of Contributors......Page 19
Series Preface......Page 23
Preface......Page 25
Part One FUNDAMENTAL BACKGROUND......Page 27
1.1 Introduction......Page 29
1.2 Polymer Composite Materials......Page 31
1.2.2 Semi-Structural Composites......Page 32
1.2.3 Structural Composites......Page 33
1.2.5 Textile Composites......Page 35
1.3 Application of Composite Materials in the Automotive Industry......Page 38
1.3.1 Crashworthiness......Page 39
1.3.2 Composite Driveshaft and Spring......Page 41
1.3.3 Other Applications......Page 42
1.4 Green Composites for Automotive Applications......Page 43
1.5.1 Modelling the Elastic Properties of Unidirectional Composites......Page 45
1.5.2.1 Analytical Modelling......Page 46
1.5.2.2 Numerical FE Modelling......Page 47
1.6 Discussion......Page 48
1.7 Conclusion......Page 49
References......Page 50
2.1 Introduction - Opportunities for Thermoplastic Composites......Page 55
2.2 Recent Developments in Automotive TPCs......Page 57
2.3.1 Materials Selection: Exploring the Potential of Aligned Fibre TPCs......Page 60
2.3.2 Demonstrator Beam Component......Page 63
2.3.3 TPC Process Development......Page 64
2.3.4 Beam Manufacture......Page 65
2.3.5 Demonstrator Beam Structural Performance......Page 66
2.3.6 Environmental Impact Assessment......Page 70
2.3.7 Economic Analysis......Page 72
2.4 Conclusion......Page 74
References......Page 75
3.1 Introduction......Page 77
3.2 Research Drivers: Energy Efficiency......Page 78
3.3 Lightweight Automotive Materials......Page 79
3.4 Barriers to Carbon Fibre Adoption in the Automotive Industry......Page 81
3.5 Global Production and the Market for Carbon Fibre......Page 84
3.6 Low-Cost Carbon Fibre Programme......Page 86
3.6.2.1 Commodity PAN-Based Precursors......Page 87
3.6.2.2 Lignin-Based Precursors......Page 89
3.6.2.3 Polyolefin-Based Precursors......Page 90
3.6.3.1 Microwave Assisted Plasma Processing......Page 91
3.6.3.2 Advanced Stabilisation/Crosslinking......Page 92
3.6.3.3 Plasma Oxidation......Page 93
3.6.3.4 Advanced Surface Treatment and Sizing......Page 95
3.6.4 Integration: Low-Cost Carbon Fibre Pilot Line......Page 96
References......Page 98
Part Two IMPACT AND CRASH ANALYSIS......Page 101
4.1 Introduction......Page 103
4.2.1 Mechanical Behaviour of Cellular Materials......Page 104
4.2.2 Energy Absorption Capabilities of Cellular Materials......Page 106
4.2.4 Strain Rate Sensitivity of Cellular Materials......Page 107
4.3 Advanced Pore Morphology Foam......Page 109
4.4 Mechanical Properties of Single APM Foam Elements......Page 110
4.5 Behaviour of Composite APM Foam......Page 115
4.5.1 Compressive Loading of Confined APM Foam Elements without Bonding......Page 116
4.5.2 Partially Bonded APM Foam Elements......Page 117
4.5.3 Fully Bonded APM Foam Elements - Syntactic Structure......Page 119
References......Page 122
5.2 Traffic Safety......Page 125
5.3 Alternative Vehicles......Page 127
5.4 Selective Overview of Worldwide Crash Tests......Page 129
5.5.1 Front Crash......Page 132
5.5.2 Side Crash......Page 134
5.6 Composite Materials for Crash Applications......Page 136
5.6.1 Performance Metrics for Energy Absorbing Structures......Page 137
5.6.2 Energy Absorbing Deformation Mechanisms in Composite Profiles......Page 139
5.7 Energy Absorption of Composite Profiles......Page 141
5.7.1 Fibre Material......Page 142
5.7.2 Matrix Material......Page 143
5.7.3 Fibre Volume Fraction......Page 144
5.7.4 Fibre Architecture......Page 145
5.7.6 Geometry......Page 147
5.7.8 Test Direction......Page 148
5.8 Conclusion......Page 150
References......Page 151
6.1 Introduction......Page 155
6.2 Materials for Automotive Applications......Page 158
6.3 Composite and Thermoplastic Materials......Page 159
6.4 Numerical Modelling of Fiat 500 Frontal Transverse Beam......Page 163
6.6 Bumper Beam Thickness Determination......Page 167
6.7 Results and Discussion......Page 168
6.8 Conclusion......Page 171
References......Page 172
7.1 Introduction and Motivation......Page 175
7.2 Conventional Method for the Development of Composite Structures......Page 176
7.3 Approaches to Automotive Lightweight Construction......Page 177
7.4 Requirements for Automotive Structures......Page 180
7.4.2 Load Adapted Design......Page 181
7.4.3 Derivation of Reference Structures......Page 183
7.5 Simulation......Page 184
7.6.1 Overview......Page 186
7.6.2 Prepreg Press Technology: Basic Investigations and Process Parameters......Page 188
7.6.3 Prepreg Press Technology: Bonding of Composite Material and Sheet Metal......Page 189
7.7 Testing......Page 191
7.7.1 Quasi-Static Tests......Page 193
7.7.2 Crash Tests......Page 194
7.8 New Methodology for the Product Engineering of Hybrid Lightweight Structures......Page 196
References......Page 198
8.2.1.1 Constitutive Equations for Composite Materials......Page 201
8.2.1.2 Micro-Mechanics Constitutive Model......Page 202
8.2.1.3 Constitutive Matrices and Stress Update for the Micro-Model......Page 204
8.2.2 Failure Analysis......Page 206
8.2.3.1 Equations in Incremental Form......Page 207
8.2.4 Verification Examples......Page 209
8.3.1.1 Strain Rate Effect on Polymer Resin......Page 214
8.3.1.2 State Variable Modelling Overview......Page 215
8.3.2.1 One-Dimensional Constitutive Equation......Page 217
8.3.2.2 Material Constant Determination......Page 218
8.3.3.2 Modified Equations with Shear Correction Factor......Page 219
8.3.3.3 Three-Dimensional Extension of Internal Stress Evolution Law......Page 220
8.3.4.1 Shell Element Simulation......Page 221
8.3.4.2 Solid Element Simulation......Page 222
8.4 Numerical Results......Page 223
References......Page 229
9.1 Introduction......Page 231
9.2 Composite Structures for Crashworthy Applications......Page 233
9.3 Geometrical and Material Characterisation of the Impact Attenuator......Page 240
9.4 Experimental Test......Page 242
9.5 Finite Element Analysis and LS-DYNA......Page 245
9.6 Comparison between Numerical and Experimental Analysis......Page 246
9.7 Investigation of the Optimal Solution......Page 247
References......Page 250
Part Three DAMAGE AND FAILURE......Page 253
10.1 Introduction......Page 255
10.2 Delamination Failure......Page 256
10.3 Objectives......Page 258
10.4.1 Materials and Laminate Manufacturing......Page 259
10.4.2 Testing Methods......Page 261
10.4.2.1 Mode I Test Method......Page 262
10.4.2.3 Mixed Mode I/II: MMB Test......Page 264
10.4.2.4 Mode II Test Method......Page 265
10.5 Numerical Simulations......Page 266
10.5.1 Virtual Crack Closure Technique......Page 267
10.5.3 Cohesive Zone Model......Page 268
10.7.1 Experimental Results......Page 270
10.7.2 Numerical Results......Page 272
10.7.3 Fractographic Analysis......Page 274
10.7.4 Stress State at the Crack Front......Page 276
References......Page 279
11.1 Introduction......Page 283
11.2.2.1 In-Plane Damage......Page 287
11.2.2.2 Theory of Traditional Cohesive Element for Modelling Delamination......Page 290
11.3.1 Artificial Damping Technique......Page 293
11.3.2 Move-Limit Technique Enforced on Cohesive Zone......Page 294
11.3.3.1 Rate-Independent Adaptive Cohesive Model......Page 297
11.3.3.2 Rate-Dependent Adaptive Cohesive Model......Page 299
11.4.1 DCB Problem......Page 301
11.4.1.1 Standard Numerical Simulations......Page 302
11.4.1.2 Artificial Damping Technique......Page 304
11.4.1.3 Move-Limit Technique......Page 305
11.4.1.4 Rate-Independent ACM......Page 307
11.4.1.5 Rate-Dependent ACM......Page 310
11.4.2 Low-Velocity Impact Problem......Page 312
References......Page 317
12.1 Introduction......Page 319
12.2 Experimental Studies......Page 320
12.3 Mode I Delamination Testing: Double Cantilever Bending Test Analysis and Results......Page 322
12.4 Mode II Delamination Testing: End Notched Flexure Test Analysis and Results......Page 323
12.5 Mixed Mode I/II Delamination Testing: Mixed-Mode Bending Test Analysis and Results......Page 328
12.6 Fracture Failure Envelope......Page 332
12.7 Conclusion......Page 334
References......Page 335
Part Four CASE STUDIES AND DESIGNS......Page 337
13.1.1 Current Landscape......Page 339
13.1.2.2 Electric Vehicle......Page 340
13.1.3 Promise for Lightweight Materials......Page 341
13.1.4 Metal Matrix Composites......Page 342
13.1.5 Cost-Benefit Analysis......Page 344
13.2.1 Solid Ceramic Reinforcements......Page 347
13.2.2 Hollow Reinforcements......Page 349
13.2.3 Carbon Based Materials......Page 352
13.3.2 Cylinder Liner......Page 354
13.3.3 Piston......Page 356
13.3.4 Connecting Rod......Page 357
13.3.5 Main and Other Bearings......Page 358
13.3.6 Crankshaft......Page 360
13.3.8 Engine Accessories......Page 361
13.3.11 Differential Housing......Page 364
13.3.12 Driveshaft......Page 365
13.3.13 Brake......Page 366
13.3.16 Electronics......Page 367
13.4 Conclusion......Page 368
References......Page 369
14.1.1 Lightweight as a Key Technology for Automotive Engineering......Page 371
14.2.1 Structural Durability of Lightweight Wheels Made from FRP......Page 375
14.2.1.1 Requirements on Composite Wheels with Respect to Fatigue......Page 377
14.2.2 Operational Strength Verification of Wheels......Page 378
14.2.3 Evidence of Operational Stability of Car Wheels Made from Plastic......Page 381
14.2.4.1 Fatigue tests on CFRP wheels......Page 382
14.3.1 CFRP Lightweight Wheel with Integrated Electrical Motor - Characteristic Data......Page 384
14.3.2.1 Technical Challenges for Multifunctional Design......Page 385
14.3.2.2 Design of the Wheel......Page 386
14.3.2.3 Manufacturing......Page 388
14.4.2 Qualitative Reliability Analysis of Multifunctional Systems Performed on CFRP Wheel with Integrated Hub Motor under Operation......Page 390
14.4.2.1 Quantitative System Reliability Analysis of Multifunctional Systems Performed on CFRP Wheel with Integrated Hub Motor under Operation......Page 391
14.5 Conclusion......Page 395
References......Page 396
15.2 Composite Materials in Automobile Bodies......Page 397
15.3 Multilayer Composite Materials in Noise and Vibration Treatment......Page 398
15.4.1 Case Study I: Modal Analysis of Vehicle Hood......Page 399
15.4.2.1 Unconstrained Layer Damping Treatment......Page 408
15.4.2.2 Constrained Layer Damping Treatment......Page 409
15.5 Conclusion......Page 412
References......Page 413
16.1 Introduction......Page 415
16.2 Materials Requirements for Brake Rotors......Page 416
16.3 Cast Iron Rotors......Page 418
16.4.1 Carbon-Carbon Composites......Page 419
16.4.2 Ceramic Matrix Carbon Composites......Page 420
16.6 Evaluation of Composite Disc Materials......Page 421
16.7 Surface Engineering of Light Alloy Brake Discs......Page 424
16.8.1 Material Requirements......Page 426
16.8.3 Evaluation of Friction Material Performance......Page 427
16.9 Conclusion......Page 428
References......Page 429
17.1 Current and Proposed Carbon Fibre Applications......Page 431
17.2 Carbon Fibre Polymer Composites: Cost Benefits and Obstacles for Automobiles......Page 433
17.3 Performance Modelling......Page 440
17.3.1 Weight Saving Models......Page 443
17.3.2 Models for Density. Stiffness and Strength......Page 444
17.3.3 Carbon Fibre Sheet Moulding Compounds......Page 448
17.3.4 Performance Modelling Summary......Page 452
17.4.1 Cost of Making Carbon Fibre......Page 453
17.4.2.1 Carbon Fibre Cost Reduction Strategies......Page 454
17.4.2.2 Non-Traditional, Lower Cost Precursor......Page 455
17.4.2.3 Non-Traditional, Lower Cost Conversion Technologies......Page 456
17.4.2.4 Commercialisation of Advanced Technologies......Page 457
References......Page 459
Index......Page 461