A Users Guide to Vacuum Technology

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
Contents
Preface
Symbols
Part I Its Basis
	Chapter 1 Vacuum Technology
		1.1 Units of Measurement
		References
	Chapter 2 Gas Properties
		2.1 Kinetic Picture of a Gas
			2.1.1 Velocity Distribution
			2.1.2 Energy Distribution
			2.1.3 Mean Free Path
			2.1.4 Particle Flux
			2.1.5 Monolayer Formation Time
			2.1.6 Pressure
		2.2 Gas Laws
			2.2.1 Boyle’s Law
			2.2.2 Amontons’ Law
			2.2.3 Charles’ Law
			2.2.4 Dalton’s Law
			2.2.5 Avogadro’s Law
			2.2.6 Graham’s Law
		2.3 Elementary Gas Transport Phenomena
			2.3.1 Viscosity
			2.3.2 Thermal Conductivity
			2.3.3 Diffusion
			2.3.4 Thermal Transpiration
		References
	Chapter 3 Gas Flow
		3.1 Flow Regimes
		3.2 Flow Concepts
		3.3 Continuum Flow
			3.3.1 Orifice
			3.3.2 Long Round Tube
			3.3.3 Short Round Tube
		3.4 Molecular Flow
			3.4.1 Orifice
			3.4.2 Long Round Tube
			3.4.3 Short Round Tube
			3.4.4 Irregular Structures
			3.4.5 Components in Parallel and Series
		3.5 Models Spanning Molecular and Viscous Flow
		References
	Chapter 4 Gas Release from Solids
		4.1 Vaporization
		4.2 Diffusion
			4.2.1 Reduction of Outdiffusion by Vacuum Baking
		4.3 Thermal Desorption
			4.3.1 Zero Order
			4.3.2 First Order
			4.3.3 Second Order
			4.3.4 Desorption from Real Surfaces
			4.3.5 Outgassing Measurements
			4.3.6 Outgassing Models
			4.3.7 Reduction by Baking
		4.4 Stimulated Desorption
			4.4.1 Electron-Stimulated Desorption
			4.4.2 Ion-Stimulated Desorption
			4.4.3 Stimulated Chemical Reactions
			4.4.4 Photo Desorption
		4.5 Permeation
			4.5.1 Atomic and Molecular Permeation
			4.5.2 Dissociative Permeation
			4.5.3 Permeation and Outgassing Units
		4.6 Pressure Limitations During Pumping
		References
Part II Measurement
	Chapter 5 Pressure Gauges
		5.1 Direct Reading Gauges
			5.1.1 Diaphragm and Bourdon Gauges
			5.1.2 Capacitance Manometer
		5.2 Indirect Reading Gauges
			5.2.1 Thermal Conductivity Gauges
			5.2.2 Spinning Rotor Gauge
			5.2.3 Ionization Gauges
		References
	Chapter 6 Flow Meters
		6.1 Molar Flow, Mass Flow, and Throughput
		6.2 Rotameters and Chokes
		6.3 Differential Pressure Devices
		6.4 Thermal Mass Flow Technique
			6.4.1 Mass Flow Meter
			6.4.2 Mass Flow Controller
			6.4.3 Mass Flow Meter Calibration
		References
	Chapter 7 Pumping Speed
		7.1 Definition
		7.2 Mechanical Pump Speed Measurements
		7.3 High Vacuum Pump Speed Measurements
			7.3.1 Methods
			7.3.2 Gas and Pump Dependence
			7.3.3 Approximate Speed Measurements
			7.3.4 Errors
		References
	Chapter 8 Residual Gas Analyzers
		8.1 Instrument Description
			8.1.1 Ion Sources
			8.1.2 Mass Filters
			8.1.3 Detectors
		8.2 Installation and Operation
			8.2.1 Operation at High Vacuum
			8.2.2 Operation at Medium and Low Vacuum
		8.3 Calibration
		8.4 Choosing an Instrument
		References
	Chapter 9 Interpretation of RGA Data
		9.1 Cracking Patterns
			9.1.1 Dissociative Ionization
			9.1.2 Isotopes
			9.1.3 Multiple Ionization
			9.1.4 Combined Effects
			9.1.5 Ion–Molecule Reactions
		9.2 Qualitative Analysis
		9.3 Quantitative Analysis
			9.3.1 Isolated Spectra
			9.3.2 Overlapping Spectra
		References
Part III Production
	Chapter 10 Mechanical Pumps
		10.1 Rotary Vane
		10.2 Lobe
		10.3 Claw
		10.4 Multistage Lobe
		10.5 Scroll
		10.6 Screw
		10.7 Diaphragm
		10.8 Reciprocating Piston
		10.9 Mechanical Pump Operation
		References
	Chapter 11 Turbomolecular Pumps
		11.1 Pumping Mechanism
		11.2 Speed–Compression Relations
			11.2.1 Maximum Compression
			11.2.2 Maximum Speed
			11.2.3 General Relation
		11.3 Ultimate Pressure
		11.4 Turbomolecular Pump Designs
		11.5 Turbo-Drag Pumps
		References
	Chapter 12 Diffusion Pumps
		12.1 Pumping Mechanism
		12.2 Speed–Throughput Characteristics
		12.3 Boiler Heating Effects
		12.4 Backstreaming, Baffles, and Traps
		References
	Chapter 13 Getter and Ion Pumps
		13.1 Getter Pumps
			13.1.1 Titanium Sublimation
			13.1.2 Non-evaporable Getters
		13.2 Ion Pumps
		References
	Chapter 14 Cryogenic Pumps
		14.1 Pumping Mechanisms
		14.2 Speed, Pressure, and Saturation
		14.3 Cooling Methods
		14.4 Cryopump Characteristics
			14.4.1 Sorption Pumps
			14.4.2 Gas Refrigerator Pumps
			14.4.3 Liquid Cryogen Pumps
		References
Part IV Materials
	Chapter 15 Materials in Vacuum
		15.1 Metals
			15.1.1 Vaporization
			15.1.2 Permeability
			15.1.3 Outgassing
			15.1.4 Structural Metals
		15.2 Glasses and Ceramics
		15.3 Polymers
		References
	Chapter 16 Joints Seals and Valves
		16.1 Permanent Joints
			16.1.1 Welding
			16.1.2 Soldering and Brazing
			16.1.3 Joining Glasses and Ceramics
		16.2 Demountable Joints
			16.2.1 Elastomer Seals
			16.2.2 Metal Gaskets
		16.3 Valves and Motion Feedthroughs
			16.3.1 Small Valves
			16.3.2 Large Valves
			16.3.3 Special-Purpose Valves
			16.3.4 Motion Feedthroughs
		References
	Chapter 17 Pump Fluids and Lubricants
		17.1 Pump Fluids
			17.1.1 Fluid Properties
			17.1.2 Fluid Types
			17.1.3 Selecting Fluids
			17.1.4 Reclamation
		17.2 Lubricants
			17.2.1 Lubricant Properties
			17.2.2 Selecting Lubricants
		References
Part V Systems
	Chapter 18 Rough Vacuum Pumping
		18.1 Exhaust Rate
			18.1.1 Pump Size
			18.1.2 Aerosol Formation
		18.2 Crossover
			18.2.1 Minimum Crossover Pressure
			18.2.2 Maximum Crossover Pressure
		References
	Chapter 19 High Vacuum Systems
		19.1 Diffusion-Pumped Systems
			19.1.1 Operating Modes
			19.1.2 Operating Issues
		19.2 Turbo-Pumped Systems
			19.2.1 Operating Modes
			19.2.2 Operating Issues
		19.3 Sputter-Ion-Pumped Systems
			19.3.1 Operating Modes
			19.3.2 Operating Issues
		19.4 Cryo-Pumped Systems
			19.4.1 Operating Modes
			19.4.2 Regeneration
			19.4.3 Operating Issues
		19.5 High Vacuum Chambers
			19.5.1 Managing Water Vapor
		References
	Chapter 20 Ultraclean Vacuum Systems
		20.1 Ultraclean Pumps
			20.1.1 Dry Roughing Pumps
			20.1.2 Turbopumps
			20.1.3 Cryopumps
			20.1.4 Sputter-Ion, TSP, and NEG Pumps
		20.2 Ultraclean Chamber Materials and Components
		20.3 Ultraclean System Pumping and Pressure Measurement
		References
	Chapter 21 Controlling Contamination in Vacuum Systems
		21.1 Defining Contamination in a Vacuum Environment
			21.1.1 Establishing Control of Vacuum Contamination
			21.1.2 Types of Vacuum Contamination
		21.2 Pump Contamination
			21.2.1 Low/Rough and Medium Vacuum Pump Contamination
			21.2.2 High and UHV Vacuum Pump Contamination
		21.3 Evacuation Contamination
			21.3.1 Particle Sources
			21.3.2 Remediation Methods
		21.4 Venting Contamination
		21.5 Internal Components, Mechanisms, and Bearings
		21.6 Machining Contamination
			21.6.1 Cutting, Milling, and Turning
			21.6.2 Grinding and Polishing
			21.6.3 Welding
		21.7 Process-Related Sources
			21.7.1 Deposition Sources
			21.7.2 Leak Detection
		21.8 Lubrication Contamination
			21.8.1 Liquid Lubricants
			21.8.2 Solid Lubricants
			21.8.3 Lamellar, Polymer, and Suspension Lubricants
		21.9 Vacuum System and Component Cleaning
			21.9.1 Designing a Cleaning Process
		21.10 Review of Clean Room Environments for Vacuum Systems
			21.10.1 The Cleanroom Environment
			21.10.2 Using Vacuum Systems in a Cleanroom Environment
		References
	Chapter 22 High Flow Systems
		22.1 Mechanically Pumped Systems
		22.2 Throttled High Vacuum Systems
			22.2.1 Chamber Designs
			22.2.2 Turbo Pumped
			22.2.3 Cryo Pumped
		References
	Chapter 23 Multichambered Systems
		23.1 Flexible Substrates
		23.2 Rigid Substrates
			23.2.1 Inline Systems
			23.2.2 Cluster Systems
		23.3 Analytical Instruments
		References
	Chapter 24 Leak Detection
		24.1 Mass Spectrometer Leak Detectors
			24.1.1 Forward Flow
			24.1.2 Counter flow
		24.2 Performance
			24.2.1 Sensitivity
			24.2.2 Response Time
			24.2.3 Testing Pressurized Chambers
			24.2.4 Calibration
		24.3 Leak Hunting Techniques
		24.4 Leak Detecting with Hydrogen Tracer Gas
		References
Part VI Appendices
	Appendix A Units and Constants
		A.1 Physical Constants
		A.2 SI Base Units
		A.3 Conversion Factors
	Appendix B Gas Properties
		B.1 Mean Free Paths of Gasses as a Function of Pressure at T = 25°C
		B.2 Physical Properties of Gasses and Vapors at T = 0°C
		B.3 Cryogenic Properties of Gases
		B.4 Gas Conductance and Flow Formulas
		B.5 Vapor Pressure Curves of Common Gases
		B.6 Appearance of Discharges in Gases and Vapors at Low Pressures
		B.7 DC Breakdown Voltages for Air and Helium Between Flat Parallel Plates
		B.8 Particle Settling Velocities in Air
	Appendix C Material Properties
		C.1 Outgassing Rates of Vacuum-Baked Metals
		C.2 Outgassing Rates of Unbaked Metals
		C.3 Outgassing Rates of Ceramics and Glasses
		C.4 Outgassing Rates of Elastomers
		C.5 Permeability of Polymeric Materials
		C.6 Vapor Pressure Curves of the Solid and Liquid Elements (Sheet A)
		C.7 Outgassing Rates of Polymers
		C.8 Austenitic Stainless Steels
	Appendix D Isotopes
		D.1 Natural Abundances
	Appendix E Cracking Patterns
		E.1 Cracking Patterns of Pump Fluids
		E.2 Cracking Patterns of Gases
		E.3 Cracking Patterns of Common Vapors
		E.4 Cracking Patterns of Common Solvents
		E.5 Cracking Patterns of Semiconductor Dopants
	Appendix F Pump Fluid Properties
		F.1 Compatibility of Elastomers and Pump Fluids
		F.2 Vapor Pressures of Mechanical Pump Fluids
		F.3 Vapor Pressures of Diffusion Pump Fluids
		F.4 Kinematic Viscosities of Pump Fluids
		F.5 Viscosity Index, Viscosity and Temperature
		F.6 Kinematic Viscosity Conversion Factors
		References
Index
EULA