A Reference Grammar of Russian (Reference Grammars)

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Contents......Page 7
1.1.1 Russian then and now......Page 9
1.1.2 Levels of language......Page 10
1.2.3 Dictionaries and grammars......Page 11
1.2.4 Statistics and corpora......Page 14
1.2.5 Strategies of describing Russian grammar......Page 16
1.3.1 The Russian Cyrillic alphabet......Page 18
1.3.2 A brief history of the Cyrillic alphabet......Page 19
1.3.3 Etymology of letters......Page 24
1.3.4 How the Cyrillic alphabet works (basics)......Page 25
1.3.5 How the Cyrillic alphabet works (refinements)......Page 27
1.3.6 How the Cyrillic alphabet works (lexical idiosyncrasies)......Page 31
1.3.7 Transliteration......Page 32
2.1 Sounds......Page 36
2.2.1 Stressed vowels......Page 37
2.2.2 Phonemic status of  [i]......Page 48
2.2.3 Vowel duration......Page 49
2.2.4 Unstressed vowels......Page 50
2.2.5 Unpaired consonants [ˇs ˇz c] and unstressed vocalism......Page 54
2.2.6 Post-tonic soft vocalism......Page 56
2.2.7 Unstressed vowels in sequence......Page 59
2.3.1 Classification of consonants......Page 60
2.3.2 Palatalization of consonants......Page 64
2.3.3 The distribution of palatalized consonants......Page 66
2.3.4 Palatalization assimilation......Page 69
2.3.5 The glide [j]......Page 71
2.3.6 Affricates......Page 72
2.3.7 Soft palatal fricatives......Page 73
2.3.8 Geminate consonants......Page 75
2.3.9 Voicing of consonants......Page 76
2.4.1 General......Page 82
2.4.2 Phonological variation: idiomaticity......Page 83
2.4.3 Phonological variation: systemic factors......Page 85
2.4.4 Phonological variation: phonostylistics and Old Muscovite pronunciation......Page 89
2.5.2 Consonant grades......Page 90
2.5.3 Types of softness......Page 92
2.5.4 Vowel grades......Page 93
2.5.5 Morphophonemic {o}......Page 94
2.5.6 Null- and full-grade vocalism......Page 96
3.1 Introduction......Page 100
3.2.1 Verbal categories......Page 101
3.2.2 Conjugation classes......Page 106
3.2.3 Stress patterns......Page 108
3.2.4 Conjugation classes: I-Conjugation......Page 109
3.2.5 Conjugation classes: suffixed E-Conjugation......Page 111
3.2.6 Conjugation classes: quasisuffixed E-Conjugation......Page 114
3.2.7 Stress in verbs: retrospective......Page 120
3.2.8 Irregularities in conjugation......Page 121
3.2.9 Secondary imperfectivization......Page 123
3.3.1 Personal pronouns......Page 124
3.3.2 Third-person pronouns......Page 125
3.3.3 Determiners (demonstrative, possessive, adjectival pronouns)......Page 126
3.3.4 Possessive adjectives…......Page 127
3.4 Quantifiers......Page 129
3.5.1 Adjectives......Page 131
3.5.2 Predicative (‘‘short”) adjectives......Page 133
3.5.4 Comparatives and superlatives......Page 135
3.6.1 Categories and declension classes of nouns......Page 138
3.6.2 Hard, soft, and unpaired declensions......Page 139
3.6.4 Declension…......Page 140
3.6.5 Declension…......Page 147
3.6.6 Declension…......Page 149
3.6.7 Declension…......Page 151
3.6.8 Declension and gender of gradation......Page 153
3.6.9 Accentual paradigms......Page 155
3.7.1 Indeclinable common nouns......Page 156
3.7.2 Acronyms......Page 158
3.7.4 Appositives......Page 159
3.7.5 Names......Page 161
4.1.2 Reference of arguments......Page 167
4.1.3 Morphological categories of nouns: gender......Page 169
4.1.4 Gender: unpaired ‘‘masculine” nouns......Page 171
4.1.6 Morphological categories of nouns: animacy......Page 173
4.1.9 Number: figurative uses of number......Page 179
4.2.1 Preliminaries......Page 182
4.2.2 Ligature {o}......Page 185
4.2.3 Case government......Page 187
4.2.4 The use of …......Page 190
4.3.2 General numerals......Page 193
4.3.3 Paucal numerals......Page 195
4.3.4 Mille numerals…......Page 197
4.3.6 Complex numerals......Page 199
4.3.7 Fractions......Page 202
4.3.8 Collectives......Page 203
4.3.9 Approximates......Page 204
4.3.10 Numerative (counting) forms of selected nouns......Page 205
4.3.11 Quantifiers and no......Page 208
4.3.12 Quantifier (numeral) cline......Page 211
4.4.2 Possessors......Page 213
4.4.3 Possessive adjectives of unique nouns......Page 214
4.4.4 Agreement of adjectives and participles......Page 215
4.4.5 Relative clauses......Page 216
4.4.6 Participles......Page 220
4.4.7 Comparatives......Page 222
4.4.8 Event nouns: introduction......Page 224
4.4.10 Arguments of event nouns......Page 225
4.5.1 Basics......Page 228
4.5.2 Common nouns in text......Page 229
4.5.3 Third-person pronouns......Page 230
4.5.4 Ellipsis (‘‘zero” pronouns)......Page 231
4.5.5 Second-person pronouns and address......Page 235
4.5.6 Names......Page 237
4.6.1…......Page 241
4.6.2…......Page 244
4.6.3 Headless…......Page 246
4.7.1 Basics......Page 248
4.7.2 Autonomous arguments......Page 250
4.7.4 Special predicate--argument relations: existential, quantifying, modal, experiential predicates......Page 251
4.7.5 Unattached reflexives......Page 253
4.7.6 Special predicate--argument relations: direct objects......Page 254
4.7.8 Autonomous domains: event argument phrases......Page 255
4.7.9 Autonomous domains: non-finite verbs......Page 256
4.7.10 First- and second-person antecedents......Page 260
4.7.11 Emphatic pronominal adjective…......Page 262
4.7.12 Retrospective on reflexives......Page 263
4.8.1 Preliminaries: interrogatives as indefinite pronouns......Page 264
4.8.2 Negative pronouns in…......Page 266
4.8.3…......Page 268
4.8.5…......Page 271
4.8.8 Negative pronouns in…......Page 273
4.8.9 Universal adjectives......Page 274
5.1.1 Predicates and arguments, in general......Page 278
5.1.2 Predicate aspectuality and modality......Page 279
5.1.3 Aspectuality and modality in context......Page 282
5.1.4 Predicate information structure......Page 283
5.1.6 The concept of subject and the concept of object......Page 284
5.1.7 Typology of predicates......Page 286
5.2.1 General......Page 289
5.2.2 Modal co-predicates......Page 292
5.2.3 Aspectual co-predicates......Page 293
5.2.5 Copular constructions: instrumental......Page 294
5.2.6 Copular adjectives: predicative (short) form vs. nominative (long) form......Page 296
5.2.7 Residual…......Page 300
5.2.9 Predicatives in non-finite clauses......Page 301
5.2.10 Summary: case usage in predicatives......Page 303
5.3.2 Clausal quantifiers and subject quantifying genitive......Page 304
5.3.3 Subject quantifying genitive without quantifiers......Page 306
5.3.4 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation: basic paradigm......Page 308
5.3.5 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation: predicates......Page 311
5.3.6 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation: reference......Page 314
5.3.7 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation…......Page 315
5.3.8 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation: predicates and reference......Page 316
5.3.9 Existential predication and the subject genitive of negation: context......Page 317
5.3.11…......Page 319
5.3.12…......Page 321
5.4.1 Basics......Page 324
5.4.2 Governed genitive......Page 325
5.4.3 Partitive and metric genitive......Page 327
5.4.4 Object genitive of negation......Page 329
5.4.5 Genitive objects: summary......Page 334
5.5.2 Secondary genitive......Page 335
5.5.3 Secondary locative......Page 338
5.6.3 Aspectual instrumentals......Page 342
5.6.4 Agentive instrumentals......Page 344
5.6.5 Summary......Page 345
5.7.1 Jakobson’s case system: general......Page 346
5.7.2 Jakobson’s case system: the analysis......Page 347
5.7.3 Syncretism......Page 349
5.7.4 Secondary genitive and secondary locative as cases?......Page 350
5.8.2 Functional equivalents of passive......Page 352
5.8.3 Reflexive verbs......Page 353
5.8.5 Past passive participles......Page 357
5.9.1 Basics......Page 359
5.9.2 Agreement with implicit arguments, complications......Page 360
5.9.3 Agreement with overt arguments: special contexts......Page 361
5.9.4 Agreement with conjoined nouns......Page 362
5.9.5 Agreement with comitative phrases......Page 364
5.9.6 Agreement with quantifier phrases......Page 365
5.10.2 Finite clauses......Page 368
5.10.3 Adverbial clauses and adverbial participles…......Page 369
5.10.4 The free infinitive construction (without overt modal)......Page 371
5.10.5 The free infinitive construction (with negative existential pronouns)......Page 372
5.10.6 The dative-with-infinitive construction (overt modal)......Page 373
5.10.8 Infinitives with hosts of intentional modality (nominative subject)......Page 374
5.10.10 Infinitives with hosts of imposed modality (accusative or dative object)......Page 375
5.10.12 Summary of infinitive constructions......Page 377
6.1 States and change, times, alternatives......Page 379
6.2.1 Modality in general......Page 380
6.2.2 Mands and the imperative......Page 382
6.2.3 Conditional constructions......Page 384
6.2.5 Dependent irrealis mood: epistemology......Page 388
6.2.7 Independent irrealis moods......Page 389
6.2.8 Syntax and semantics of modal predicates......Page 390
6.3.1 Predicates and times, in general......Page 392
6.3.2 Tense in finite adjectival and adverbial clauses......Page 393
6.3.3 Tense in argument clauses......Page 396
6.3.4 Shifts of perspective in tense: historical present......Page 400
6.3.6 Tense in participles......Page 403
6.3.7 Aspectual-temporal-modal particles......Page 405
6.4.1 Aspect made simple......Page 406
6.4.3 Aspect and morphology: the core strategy......Page 409
6.4.4 Aspect and morphology: other strategies and groups......Page 415
6.4.5 Aspect pairs......Page 417
6.4.6 Intrinsic lexical aspect......Page 419
6.4.7 Verbs of motion......Page 420
6.5.2 Past ‘‘aoristic” narrative: perfective......Page 423
6.5.3 Retrospective (‘‘perfect”) contexts: perfective and imperfective......Page 424
6.5.4 The essentialist context: imperfective......Page 425
6.5.5 Progressive context: imperfective......Page 427
6.5.6 Durative context: imperfective......Page 428
6.5.7 Iterative context: imperfective......Page 429
6.5.8 The future context: perfective and imperfective......Page 431
6.5.9 Exemplary potential context: perfective......Page 432
6.5.10 Infinitive contexts: perfective and imperfective......Page 434
6.6.2 Measured intervals......Page 437
6.6.3 Time units......Page 438
6.6.4 Time units: variations on the basic patterns......Page 440
6.6.5 Boundaries…......Page 443
6.6.7 Boundaries…......Page 444
6.6.9 Bounded intervals…......Page 445
6.6.11 Metric intervals…......Page 446
6.6.13 Metric intervals…......Page 448
6.6.15 Some lexical adverbs......Page 449
6.6.17 Summary......Page 451
7.2.1 Basics......Page 452
7.2.2 Intonation contours......Page 453
7.3.1 General......Page 457
7.3.2 SV, SVO......Page 458
7.3.3 OVS......Page 459
7.3.5 VS(X), VSO, VOS......Page 460
7.3.6 Word order without subjects......Page 462
7.3.8 Emphatic stress and word order......Page 463
7.3.10 Word order in speech......Page 465
7.4.2 Distribution and scope of negation......Page 467
7.4.3 Negation and other phenomena......Page 468
7.5.2 Content questions......Page 469
7.5.3 Polarity questions and answers......Page 470
7.6.1 Conjunctions......Page 473
7.6.2 Contrastive conjunctions......Page 474
7.6.3…......Page 475
7.6.4…......Page 479
Bibliography......Page 481
Index......Page 501