A Reference Grammar of Modern Standard Arabic

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 9
1 Goals......Page 19
3 The database......Page 20
Procedures:......Page 22
Abbreviations......Page 24
Acknowledgments......Page 27
1 Afro-Asiatic and the Semitic language family......Page 29
3 Classical Arabic......Page 30
4 The modern period......Page 32
5.1 Diglossia......Page 33
5.3 Arabic academies......Page 35
5.4 Definitions of MSA......Page 36
1 The alphabet......Page 38
2 Names and shapes of the letters......Page 39
3 Consonants: pronunciation and description......Page 40
3.2 Description of Arabic consonants......Page 41
3.3.1 Strong hamza…......Page 44
3.3.3 Weak hamza…......Page 47
3.4.1 Spelling......Page 49
3.4.3 Pronunciation......Page 50
3.5.1 Reasons for gemination......Page 52
4.2.1 alif......Page 53
4.2.2 Semivowels/semi-consonants waaw and yaa\'......Page 57
4.3 Short vowels and sukuun…......Page 58
4.3.4 Absence of vowel: sukuun…......Page 59
4.3.5 Extra short or helping vowels......Page 60
4.4.1 Diphthongs......Page 61
5.2.1 Formal pause form......Page 62
6 MSA syllable structure......Page 63
7 Word stress rules......Page 64
7.1.3 Stress on the antepenult......Page 65
7.2.2 Other pause form conventions......Page 66
8.1.2 Pronunciation......Page 68
8.2 Indefinite marker: nunation…......Page 70
1 Morphology in general......Page 72
2 Derivation: the Arabic root-pattern system......Page 73
2.1 A definition of root......Page 75
2.2 A definition of pattern......Page 76
4 Dictionary organization......Page 77
5.3.1 Pronouns......Page 78
6.1 Tense/Aspect......Page 79
6.3 Voice......Page 80
6.6 Number......Page 81
6.8 Definiteness: determiners......Page 82
8 MSA inflectional classes......Page 83
9 Case and mood: special inflectional categories in Arabic......Page 84
1.2 Government…......Page 85
2. The simple sentence......Page 86
2.1.1 The structure of equational sentences......Page 87
2.2.1 Subject as verb inflection only......Page 91
2.2.5 Mention of both subject and object......Page 92
2.4.1 Verb–subject agreement......Page 93
2.5.3 Both objects expressed as pronouns......Page 97
2.5.6 Dative movement with doubly transitive verbs......Page 98
2.5.7 Semantic structure of doubly transitive verbs......Page 99
4. Compound or complex sentences......Page 100
5 Arabic noun types......Page 102
1.1.1 Form I......Page 103
1.1.3 Form III......Page 104
1.1.7 Form VII......Page 105
1.2.1 Form I:…......Page 106
1.3.1 Verbal noun as equivalent to gerund or infinitive......Page 107
1.3.2 Verbal nouns in iDaafas or with pronoun sufflx......Page 108
1.3.3 Verbal noun and preposition......Page 110
2 Active and passive participle......Page 111
2.2 The extended Form II–X AP nouns......Page 112
2.4.1 Form I:…......Page 113
3 Noun of place…......Page 114
4 Noun of instrument......Page 115
6 Common noun…......Page 116
7 Generic noun…......Page 117
9 Abstraction nouns ending with-iyya......Page 118
9.5 Derivation from a participle......Page 119
10.1.3 The five nouns…......Page 120
11.2.1 Nouns from quadriliteral reduplicated verbs......Page 121
12.1 Collective/mass term......Page 122
13 Borrowed nouns......Page 123
14.1 Geographical names......Page 124
14.2.2 Men’s given names......Page 125
15.1.1 Blending word segments into one word......Page 127
15.2 Compound nouns......Page 128
6 Participles: active and passive......Page 130
1.1.1 Form I AP nouns......Page 131
1.1.2 Form I APs as adjectives......Page 133
1.2.1 Form II AP:…......Page 135
1.2.3 Form IV AP:…......Page 136
1.2.4 Form V AP:…......Page 137
1.2.7 Form VIII AP:…......Page 138
1.3 Quadriliteral APs......Page 139
1.4.2 The Hall…......Page 140
2.1 Form I passive participle:…......Page 141
2.2 Derived form passive participles II–X......Page 142
2.2.3 Form IV PP:…......Page 143
2.2.7 Form VIII PP:…......Page 144
2.3.1 Form I QPP:…......Page 145
2.4 PP nouns in the plural......Page 146
1 Gender......Page 147
1.1.2 Cryptomasculine nouns......Page 148
1.2.5 Unit nouns (individual units of larger collective entities)......Page 149
1.2.8 Female proper names......Page 150
1.2.12 Other feminine suffixes......Page 151
1.3 Natural gender nouns......Page 152
2.1.1 Nonhuman referent......Page 153
2.1.3 Special cases......Page 154
2.2.3 Human/nonhuman homonyms......Page 156
3.1.1 Dual with taa marbuuTa......Page 157
3.1.4 Nuun-deletion in iDaafa......Page 158
3.1.6 Dual agreement......Page 159
3.2.1 The sound feminine plural…......Page 160
3.2.2 The sound masculine plural…......Page 168
3.2.3 The broken plural…......Page 172
3.2.5 Plural of the plural:…......Page 183
4.1.1 The definite article /al-/:......Page 184
4.1.2 Uses of the de.nite article......Page 186
4.1.4 Definiteness through pronoun suffix......Page 188
4.2.1 Writing and pronunciation: nunation......Page 189
4.2.2 Uses of the indefinite......Page 192
5 Case infiection......Page 193
5.1 Pronunciation and writing conventions......Page 194
5.2 Case marking and declensions......Page 195
5.3 Case categories and their functions......Page 196
5.3.1 Nominative case…......Page 197
5.3.2 Genitive case…......Page 199
5.3.3 Accusative case…......Page 200
5.4 Arabic declensions......Page 210
5.4.1 Three-way inflection: Triptote…......Page 211
5.4.2 Two-way inflection: declensions two, three, four, and five......Page 215
5.4.3 DECLENSION SIX: DEFECTIVE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES…......Page 225
5.4.4 Declension seven: indeclinable nouns…......Page 227
5.4.5 Declension eight: Invariable nouns......Page 228
1 The construct phrase or…......Page 233
1.1.3 Partitive relationship......Page 234
1.1.4 Agent relationship......Page 235
1.1.5 Object relationship......Page 236
1.1.8 Contents relationship......Page 237
1.1.11 Clause relationship......Page 238
1.2.1 The first term of the construct......Page 239
1.2.2 The second or final term of the construct......Page 240
1.3.1 Modifying the first term......Page 241
1.4.1 Demonstrative with first term of construct......Page 242
1.5.1 Construct with three nouns......Page 243
1.5.3 Construct with five nouns......Page 244
1.6 Joint annexation......Page 245
1.7.1 The use of adam and i aada......Page 246
1.7.3 Use of nafs ‘same’ as first term......Page 247
1.8 Avoiding the construct phrase or iDaafa......Page 248
1.9.2 The adjective or “false” iDaafa…......Page 249
1.9.3 The descriptive construct with ghayr plus adjective......Page 251
2.1.2 Reduced relative clauses......Page 252
2.2 Accusative Apposition......Page 253
2.3.1 Quantifier noun idda......Page 254
2.4 Relative pronoun maa in apposition......Page 255
1.1.2 “all, the whole”......Page 256
1.2 jamii…......Page 257
2 Expressions of limited number, non-specific number, or partiality......Page 258
2.1.3 Reciprocal…......Page 259
2.3.2 In apposition with a noun......Page 260
2.7 kathiir-un min…......Page 261
3.2.2 akthar......Page 262
4.2 Agreement with specified noun......Page 263
5.1.1 nafs…......Page 264
5.2.1 Masculine form of ayy + noun......Page 265
5.2.3 ayy as independent noun......Page 266
1.1 Attributive adjective modifying noun + pronoun suffix......Page 267
3 Adjectives as substantives......Page 268
4.1.1 Masculine singular adjectives......Page 269
4.1.4 Feminine singular adjectives......Page 270
4.1.6 Feminine plural adjectives......Page 271
4.2 Adjective in.ection for comparative and superlative…......Page 272
4.2.1 Comparative adjective:…......Page 273
4.2.2 Inflection and use of comparative......Page 274
4.2.3 The periphrastic or phrasal comparative......Page 277
4.2.4 The superlative......Page 278
5 The adjective iDaafa, the “false” iDaafa…......Page 281
Part two: Adjective derivation: the structure of Arabic adjectives......Page 282
1.1 The CaCiiC or…......Page 283
1.2 The CaCCiC or…......Page 284
1.6 The CaCCaan or…......Page 285
3 Participles functioning as adjectives......Page 286
3.1 Active participles as adjectives......Page 287
3.2 Passive participles as adjectives......Page 288
4.1 Nisba from a singular noun......Page 289
4.1.3 Root hamza retention......Page 290
4.3 Nisba from a participle or adjective......Page 291
4.4.4 Exceptions......Page 292
4.6 Nisba from biliteral nouns......Page 293
4.9.3 Intact stem......Page 294
4.12 Nisbas from set phrases or fixed expressions......Page 295
4.13 Nisbas from compound words......Page 296
4.15.2 Broken nisba plural......Page 297
5.1 Pattern-derived color adjectives......Page 298
5.2 Physical feature adjectives......Page 299
5.3 Nisba color adjectives......Page 300
6 Non-derived adjectives......Page 301
7.2 The noun ghayr non-; un-, in-, other than’......Page 302
11 Adverbs and adverbial expressions......Page 304
1.1.1 faqaT…......Page 305
1.2.2 kathiir-an…......Page 306
1.2.8 Repeated noun of measurement......Page 307
1.3.4 li-l-ghaayat-i…......Page 308
2.1 Basic adverbs of manner......Page 309
2.2 Nouns and adjectives in the accusative......Page 310
2.3.1 The circumstantial construction: al-Haal…......Page 311
2.3.2 The cognate accusative:…......Page 313
2.3.4 Other phrasal manner adverbials......Page 314
3.1.1 hunaa…......Page 316
3.3 Locative adverbs or semi-prepositions (Zuruuf makaan......Page 317
4.1.1…......Page 318
4.1.3 ba.d-u…......Page 319
4.2.1 Inde.nite accusative time nouns......Page 320
4.3.1 -dhaaka…......Page 321
4.4 Adverbial time phrases......Page 322
6 Adverbial accusative of specification…......Page 323
7 Adverbial accusative of cause or reason…......Page 324
8 Adverbs as speech acts......Page 325
1 Independent personal pronouns…......Page 326
1.1.1 To emphasize the subject of a verb......Page 327
1.1.4 As a copula......Page 328
2.1 Possessive pronoun suffixes......Page 329
2.1.1 Vowel shift pronouns......Page 330
2.1.3 Noun + pronoun suffix + adjective......Page 331
2.1.4 Pronoun suf.xes on dual and sound masculine plural nouns......Page 332
2.2.1 Pronoun objects of transitive verbs......Page 333
2.3 Pronoun objects of prepositions and semi-prepositions......Page 336
2.3.1 One-letter prepositions:…......Page 337
2.3.2 Two-letter prepositions: .i, min, an......Page 338
2.3.3 Defective three-letter prepositions: ilaa, alaa and semi-preposition ladaa......Page 339
4 Independent possessive pronoun: dhuu + noun......Page 340
4.2 Feminine......Page 341
1 Demonstrative of proximity: ‘this; these’…......Page 343
3.2 Demonstrative phrases......Page 344
3.4 Demonstrative with first term of iDaafa......Page 345
3.7 Demonstrative clauses......Page 346
4.1 dhaaka…......Page 347
4.4 Locative demonstrative pronouns:…......Page 348
4.4.3 Existential hunaaka…......Page 349
1 Definite relative pronouns......Page 350
2.3 Plural relative pronoun......Page 351
4.1 Resumptive pronoun in definite relative clauses......Page 352
5.1 Use of man as indefinite pronoun......Page 353
5.3 maa and man + resumptive pronoun......Page 354
5.6 maa ‘a certain; some, one’......Page 355
5.8 bi-maa fii…......Page 356
1 Cardinal numerals…......Page 357
1.1.2 ‘One of ’:…......Page 358
1.2.1 The dual (al-muthannaa…......Page 360
1.3 Numerals three to ten......Page 362
1.3.1 Three to ten counted nouns......Page 363
1.4 Numerals eleven and twelve......Page 367
1.4.2 Definite counted nouns with eleven and twelve......Page 368
1.5 Numbers thirteen to nineteen......Page 369
1.5.1 Indefinite counted noun......Page 370
1.6 Numerals twenty to ninety-nine......Page 371
1.6.2 Plurals of tens......Page 372
1.6.3 Compound tens......Page 373
1.7 The even hundreds......Page 374
1.7.2 Definite hundreds phrases......Page 375
1.8 Complex numerals with hundred......Page 376
1.8.2 Plural “hundreds”:…......Page 377
1.9.1 Counting in thousands......Page 378
1.10 Reading years in dates......Page 379
1.10.3 ‘in the year 1998’......Page 380
1.11 Millions and billions......Page 381
2.1.1 awwal......Page 382
2.1.2 uulaa…......Page 383
2.2 Second through tenth......Page 384
2.2.2 Ordinals as nouns: thaanin /thaanii......Page 385
2.3 Eleventh through nineteenth......Page 386
2.4 Twentieth to ninety-ninth......Page 387
3.1 Fractions......Page 388
3.2 Telling time......Page 389
3.3 Days of the week......Page 390
3.4.2 thulaathiyy…......Page 391
4.1 aaxir…......Page 392
4.2 axiir…......Page 393
1.3 Zuruuf makaan wa-Zuruuf zamaan…......Page 394
2.1.1 The preposition bi- ‘at, with, in, by; by means of’......Page 395
2.1.2 The preposition li- ‘to; belonging to; for; for the purpose of’......Page 399
2.1.3 The preposition ka- ‘like, as; such as; in the capacity of’......Page 402
2.2.1 fii…......Page 403
2.2.2 The preposition min…......Page 406
2.2.3 The preposition an ‘from, away from; about’......Page 408
2.3 Three-letter prepositions:…......Page 409
2.3.1 The preposition…......Page 410
2.3.2 The preposition…......Page 411
2.3.4 The preposition mundhu…......Page 412
3.1 amaam-a…......Page 414
3.3.1 Repetition of bayn-a with pronoun......Page 415
3.4 ba d-a…......Page 416
3.4.3 ba…......Page 417
3.8.1 duun-a......Page 418
3.12 Hawl-a…......Page 419
3.17 ladaa…......Page 420
3.18.1 Accompaniment or association......Page 421
3.19.1 mithl + demonstrative + noun ‘such as this/these; such a’......Page 422
3.21.1 qabl-a…......Page 423
3.22.2 qurb-a…......Page 424
3.27 waraa-a…......Page 425
3.33 aqib-a…......Page 426
3.34.5 Adverbial of time......Page 427
4 Prepositions with clause objects......Page 428
1 ayn-a…......Page 429
3.1 kam…......Page 430
6.1 maa ‘what’…......Page 431
6.2.3 maadhaa .an ‘what about......Page 432
9.1 hal…......Page 433
9.2.1 a-laa…......Page 434
18 Connectives and conjunctions......Page 435
1.1 Sentence starter wa-......Page 437
2 fa-…......Page 438
3.1 bal…......Page 439
5.2 idhan…......Page 440
6.1 Adverbial conjunctions of place: Hayth-u…......Page 441
6.2.2 ba d-a-maa…......Page 442
6.2.5 ind-a-maa…......Page 443
6.3.2 mithl-a-maa…......Page 444
7 Disjunctives......Page 445
7.3 immaa…......Page 446
8.2 Passive and passive-like starters......Page 447
8.3.2 Addition:…......Page 448
8.3.3 Statement of contents:…......Page 449
1.1 Grammatical effect......Page 450
1.4 Reduplicated pronoun subject......Page 451
1.7 With buffer pronoun:…......Page 452
2.3 anna…......Page 453
2.5 li anna…......Page 455
2.6 la alla…......Page 456
1 Verb roots......Page 457
1.2 Geminate verb root…......Page 458
1.4.2 Hollow verb root…......Page 459
1.5 Quadriliteral verb root…......Page 460
2.1 Comparison with English......Page 461
2.2 The ten-form template: af aal mujarrada wa-af aal maziida......Page 462
2.2.1 Conventions......Page 463
2.4 Morphological shifts......Page 464
2.5 The verb forms: patterns, meanings, deverbal substantives......Page 465
1.1.1 Gender: masculine or feminine......Page 466
1.2.2 Tense/Aspect......Page 467
1.2.3.1 FORM:......Page 469
1.2.5.1 FORM:......Page 470
1.2.5.3 MEANING......Page 471
1.3 Moods of the verb......Page 472
1.4 Voice: active or passive......Page 473
2.1.1 The past progressive......Page 474
2.2.1 With subject noun......Page 476
2.4 Unreal condition......Page 477
2.5.1 qad with past (perfect) tense......Page 478
2.6 Verb strings or serial verb constructions......Page 479
2.6.1 Verbs of appropinquation......Page 480
2.6.3 Verbs of continuation......Page 481
2.6.4 Simultaneous verbal action (al-Haal…......Page 482
1.5 Root types......Page 483
2.1.2 fa.al-a / ya-f il-u......Page 484
2.4 Examples of Form I sound verbs in context......Page 485
3.2.1 fa.al-a /ya-f.ul-u (a/u) –> fa l-a/ya-fu.l-u......Page 486
3.2.3 fa il-a/ya-f a-lu (i/a) –> fa l-a/ya-fa l-u......Page 487
5.1.1 fatHa/kasra......Page 488
6 Hollow root…......Page 489
6.3 Hollow alif......Page 490
7.2.2 -ya/-aa verbs......Page 491
8.3 Assimilated and defective…......Page 492
9.1 Form I sound root verbal nouns......Page 493
9.2 Form I geminate root verbal nouns......Page 494
9.4 Form I Assimilated root verbal nouns......Page 495
9.5 Form I hollow root verbal nouns......Page 496
9.7.2 Defective and hamzated......Page 497
10.1.1 Strong/regular root......Page 498
10.1.4 Assimilated root: faa il......Page 499
10.1.7 Examples of Form I AP in context......Page 500
10.2.3 Hamzated root......Page 501
10.2.7 Examples of Form I PP’s in context......Page 502
1.4 Inflection......Page 519
4.1 Initial hamza......Page 520
7 Defective roots in Form II......Page 521
10 Form II verbal nouns......Page 522
10.8 Borrowing from Form I......Page 523
11.1.6 Defective root......Page 524
12.6 Defective root......Page 525
11.2.7 Examples of Form II passive participles in context......Page 526
2 Regular (sound) triliteral root......Page 531
4.2 Medial hamza......Page 532
7 Defective roots in Form III......Page 533
10.1 Sound/regular root......Page 534
10.5 Defective root......Page 535
11.1.3 Assimilated root......Page 536
11.2 Form III passive participle (PP): mufaa.al…......Page 537
1.3 Transitivity......Page 543
3 Geminate (doubled) root Form IV:…......Page 544
6 Hollow roots in Form IV:…......Page 545
9. Exclamatory Form IV…......Page 546
11.1 Sound/regular root......Page 547
11.6 Defective root:…......Page 548
12.1.3.1 Hamza-INITIAL......Page 549
12.2.2 Geminate root:…......Page 550
12.2.7 Examples of Form IV PPs in context......Page 551
1.2 Meaning......Page 558
4.1 Initial hamza......Page 559
7 Defective roots in Form V:…......Page 560
10.3 Hamzated roots......Page 561
11.1.1 Strong/regular root......Page 562
11.3.1 Active participle......Page 563
11.3.2 Passive participle......Page 564
2 Regular (sound) triliteral root......Page 571
4.3 Final hamza......Page 572
8 Examples of Form VI verbs in context......Page 573
9.4 Assimilated root......Page 574
10 Form VI participles......Page 575
10.1.7 Examples of Form VI APs in context......Page 576
10.2.3 Examples of Form VI PPs in context......Page 577
1.4 Inflection......Page 583
4 Hamzated roots in Form VII......Page 584
9.2 Geminate root......Page 585
10.1.2 Geminate root:…......Page 586
10.2.4 Assimilated root......Page 587
10.3 Examples of Form VII participles in context......Page 588
1.3 Transitivity......Page 593
1.5.1 Progressive assimilation......Page 594
1.5.2 Form VIII regressive assimilation......Page 595
4.3 Hamza-final......Page 596
8 Examples of Form VIII verbs in context......Page 597
9.6 Defective root......Page 598
10.1.3 Hamzated root......Page 599
10.2.1 Strong/regular root:…......Page 600
10.2.6 Examples of Form VIII PPs in context......Page 601
2 Sound/regular roots in Form IX: if.all-…......Page 607
9.1 Sound/regular root:…......Page 608
10.1 Form IX participles (AP and PP):…......Page 609
1.3 Transitivity......Page 612
6 Hollow roots in Form X......Page 613
9.3 Hamzated root......Page 614
10.1.1 Sound/regular root......Page 615
10.2.2 Geminate root......Page 616
10.2.7 Form X PPs in context......Page 617
2 Form XII:…......Page 624
5 Form XV:…......Page 625
5.1 Verbal noun:…......Page 626
2.1 Pattern......Page 627
2.5.1 Acronymic roots......Page 628
3.1 Pattern......Page 629
4 Form III: if.anlal-a…......Page 630
6 Examples of quadriliteral verbs in context......Page 631
8.1.1 Form I QAP:…......Page 632
8.2.4 Quadriliteral PPs in context......Page 633
1 The indicative mood: al-muDaari al-marfuu…......Page 634
1.3.1 Statements......Page 635
2 The subjunctive mood: al-muDaari al-manSuub…......Page 636
2.1 Negative particle:…......Page 637
2.2.4 li-kay…......Page 638
2.3 Subordinating conjunction:…......Page 639
2.3.1.1 qabl-a…......Page 640
2.3.2 Impersonal verbs +  subjunctive......Page 641
2.3.3 alaa…......Page 642
2.3.4 Adjective…......Page 643
1.1 Jussive mood paradigm: sound Form I verb......Page 644
1.3 Jussive mood paradigm: hollow Form I verb......Page 645
1.3.2 Hollow yaa verb......Page 646
1.4.1 Jussive of yaa-defective verb (-aa/-ii)......Page 647
1.4.3 Jussive of waaw-defective verb......Page 648
1.5.1 In conditional sentences......Page 649
2.1 To form the imperative......Page 650
2.2.1.1 STEM VOWEL fatHa......Page 652
2.2.3 Geminate verbs......Page 653
2.2.5.2HOLLOW yaa VERB:…......Page 654
2.2.6.1 Yaa-DEFECTIVE VERBS:......Page 655
2.2.7.1 IMPERATIVE OF…......Page 656
2.4 Form III......Page 657
2.8 Form VII......Page 658
2.12 Quadriliteral imperatives......Page 659
4 The negative imperative:…......Page 660
1.1 Omission of kaan-a in simple present tense predication......Page 662
1.2.3.1 PAST TENSE......Page 663
1.3.1 Past progressive......Page 664
3.1 baat-a…......Page 665
4 Verbs of remaining:…......Page 666
4.3.1 maa zaal-a As an auxiliary verb......Page 667
5.2 Zahar-a/ya-Zhar-u…......Page 668
1.1 Chart: conjugation of lays-a…......Page 669
1.2 Discussion and examples of lays-a…......Page 670
1.3.3 Predicate of lays-a…......Page 671
2.1.3.1 allaa…......Page 672
2.1.6 The laa of categorical or absolute negation: (laa al-naa.ya li-l-jins…......Page 673
2.1.7 laa . . . wa-laa…......Page 674
2.2.2 maa…......Page 675
2.2.4.2 USE OF ghayr…......Page 676
2.2.4.3 ghayr…......Page 677
3 Exceptive expressions......Page 678
3.2.2 Negative clause + illaa…......Page 679
3.2.4 illaa anna......Page 680
3.4 siwaa…......Page 681
3.6 raghm-a…......Page 682
3.9 law-laa…......Page 683
1.1 Two types of Arabic passive: inflectional and derivational......Page 685
1.3 Contrast between active and passive voice......Page 686
2.1 Past tense......Page 687
2.1.1 Examples of the Form I past tense passive in context......Page 688
2.1.2 The past passive in derived forms of the verb......Page 689
2.2 Inflectional passive: present tense stem......Page 691
2.2.1 Examples of the Form I present tense passive in context......Page 692
2.2.2 Derived forms of the verb in the present tense passive......Page 693
2.3 Passive with verb-preposition idioms......Page 694
2.4 Passive with doubly transitive verbs......Page 695
3 Passive with derived forms of the verb......Page 696
3.3 Form VIII......Page 697
1 Possible conditions:…......Page 699
1.1.3 Reversal of clause order......Page 700
1.2 Conditional with .in + perfect or in + jussive......Page 701
2.2 ayn-a-maa…......Page 702
3. Contrary-to-fact conditionals:…......Page 703
4.1 Optatives in the present tense......Page 704
Using an Arabic dictionary......Page 705
Using the Wehr Dictionary......Page 706
Using an Arabic–Arabic dictionary......Page 708
1. Glossary of Arabic grammatical terms......Page 710
2. Glossary of English grammatical terms......Page 714
References......Page 719
Index......Page 729