A Practical Approach to Water Conservation for Commercial and Industrial Facilities

Front Cover......Page 1
A Practical Approach to Water Conservation for Commercial and Industrial Facilities......Page 4
Copyright Page......Page 5
Table of Contents......Page 8
Foreword......Page 17
About the Author......Page 19
Acknowledgement......Page 20
1.1 Introduction......Page 22
1.2 Global Water Resources Availability......Page 23
1.3 Human Need for Safe Drinking Water and Proper Sanitation......Page 24
1.4 Meeting Agricultural Needs......Page 27
1.5 The Impact of Climate Change......Page 29
1.6 Business Sector Water Usage......Page 32
1.7 Nine Reasons for Business to Reduce Their Water Consumption......Page 36
References......Page 43
2.1 Overview......Page 46
2.3.1 pH......Page 47
2.3.2.1 Carbon dioxide and Alkalinity......Page 49
2.3.2.3 Ammonia (NH3)......Page 50
2.3.3.1 Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids......Page 51
2.3.3.2 Hardness, Calcium and Magnesium......Page 53
2.3.3.3 Chlorides......Page 56
2.3.3.6 Manganese......Page 57
2.3.3.10 Boron......Page 58
2.3.5 Colour......Page 59
2.3.6.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand......Page 60
2.3.7.2 Bacteria......Page 61
2.3.7.3 Protozoa......Page 62
2.3.8.1 Chromium......Page 63
2.3.8.3 Lead......Page 64
References......Page 65
3.1 Developing a Sustainable Water Management Plan......Page 67
3.2 Step 1: Seek Senior Management Commitment......Page 71
3.3.1 Responsibilities of the Water Conservation Manager......Page 72
3.4 Step 3: Gather Baseline Data and Review Usage......Page 73
3.5.1.1 One-2-Five Water® – Management Diagnostic System......Page 76
3.5.2 Technical Assessment......Page 77
3.5.2.1 How Detailed Should the Water Audit Be?......Page 78
3.5.2.2 Estimating Water-Saving Potential......Page 80
3.5.2.3 Complying with Regulatory Standards......Page 81
3.5.2.4 Carrying out a Water Audit......Page 83
3.5.2.6 Identifying Other Opportunities to Reduce Water Use......Page 86
3.6 Step 5: Preparing the Plan Prioritising the Opportunities......Page 88
3.7 Step 6: Report the Results......Page 89
References......Page 92
4.1 Flow Measurement......Page 94
4.2.1 Positive Displacement Meters (volumetric)......Page 96
4.2.2 Velocity Meters......Page 97
4.2.2.1 Mechanical Meters......Page 98
4.2.2.2 Non-Mechanical Meters......Page 99
4.4 Dataloggers......Page 101
4.6 Conclusion......Page 103
5.1 Introduction......Page 104
5.2 Types of Cooling Systems......Page 105
5.2.1 Open Recirculating Cooling Water Systems......Page 106
5.2.1.1 Recirculating Cooling Water Systems – Operational Principles......Page 107
5.2.1.2 Recirculating Cooling Water Systems – Basic Concepts......Page 109
5.3 Types of Cooling Towers......Page 113
5.3.2 Induced Draught Counter-flow Cooling Towers......Page 114
5.4 Water Conservation Opportunities......Page 115
5.4.1.1 Minimising Overflow of Water from Cooling Tower Basins......Page 116
5.4.2 Reducing Voluntary Water Loss......Page 117
5.4.2.1 Increasing Cycles of Concentration......Page 118
5.4.2.3 Operate Blowdown in Continuous Mode......Page 119
5.4.2.4 Install Sidestream Filtration......Page 120
5.4.3.1 Shut Off the Unit When not in Operation......Page 121
5.5.1 Maximum Allowable Concentrations......Page 122
5.6 Cooling Water Treatment for Recirculating Water Systems......Page 125
5.6.1 Scaling......Page 126
5.6.1.1 Scaling Indices......Page 128
5.6.1.3 Scale-control Methods......Page 129
5.6.3 Corrosion......Page 130
5.6.4 Biofouling and Microbial Growth......Page 132
5.6.4.1 Microbiological Control......Page 133
5.7 Role of Water Treatment Contractors in Water Conservation......Page 135
References......Page 136
6.1 Air-conditioning and Refrigeration Systems......Page 138
6.2 Energy Conservation = Water Conservation......Page 139
6.3 Alternative Heat Rejection Systems......Page 144
6.3.1 Air-Cooled Condensers......Page 145
6.3.2 Hybrid Cooling Towers......Page 146
6.3.3 Combination Cooling Systems......Page 148
6.3.4 Geothermal Cooling Systems......Page 150
References......Page 151
7.1 Introduction......Page 153
7.2 Steam System Principles......Page 154
7.2.1 Pre-treatment......Page 155
7.2.2.1 Firetube Boilers......Page 160
7.2.2.2 Watertube Boilers......Page 161
7.2.3 Steam Distribution System......Page 164
7.2.3.3 Thermodynamic Traps......Page 165
7.2.3.4 Fixed Orifice Condensate Discharge Traps (FOCDT)......Page 166
7.3 Steam and Energy Conservation Opportunities......Page 167
7.3.1 Repair Steam Leaks......Page 168
7.3.2 Maximise Condensate Recovery......Page 169
7.3.2.1 Condensate Quality and System Protection......Page 171
7.3.3.1 Blowdown Control......Page 172
7.4 Calculating the “True” Cost of Steam......Page 175
References......Page 176
8.1 Introduction......Page 178
8.2 A Step-by-Step Approach to Water Reuse......Page 180
8.2.1.2 Project Boundaries......Page 181
8.2.3 Identify the Project......Page 182
8.3 Pollutants Found in Reuse Streams......Page 185
8.4 Removal of Pollutants......Page 186
8.5 Removal of Suspended Solids......Page 188
8.5.1 Screening......Page 189
8.5.2 Sedimentation......Page 191
8.5.3 Settling......Page 192
8.5.4 Chemically Aided Settling – Coagulation......Page 193
8.5.5 Filtration......Page 194
8.6.1 Sources of Fats, Oil and Grease......Page 196
8.6.3 Emulsified FOG Removal......Page 197
8.6.3.1 Air Flotation......Page 198
8.6.3.2 Ultrafiltration......Page 200
8.7 Removal of Biodegradable Organics......Page 201
8.7.1 Activated Sludge Process......Page 205
8.7.2 Anaerobic Processes......Page 209
8.7.2.1 Performance......Page 211
8.7.3 Membrane Bioreactors......Page 212
8.8 Removal of Heavy Metals......Page 213
8.8.1 Chemical Precipitation......Page 214
8.8.2 Ion Exchange......Page 217
8.9 Adsorption......Page 218
8.10.1 Overview......Page 219
8.10.2.2 Cross-flow Filtration......Page 222
8.10.3.1 Microfiltration......Page 223
8.10.3.3 Nanofiltration......Page 226
8.10.4 Membrane Structure......Page 227
8.10.5.2 Hollow Fibre......Page 228
8.10.5.3 Tubular......Page 229
8.10.5.4 Plate and Frame......Page 230
8.10.6 Membrane Performance Monitoring......Page 234
8.10.6.1 Silt Density Index......Page 235
8.10.6.3 Membrane flux......Page 236
8.10.6.4 Permeate Recovery......Page 237
8.10.8 Considerations When Selecting Membrane Systems......Page 238
References......Page 240
9.1 Introduction......Page 242
9.3 Making a Good Business Case......Page 243
9.3.1 Identifying Hidden Costs......Page 245
9.4 Computing Cash Flows......Page 247
9.5.1 Payback Method......Page 249
9.5.3 Discounted Cash Flow Methods......Page 251
9.5.4 Net Present Value Analyses......Page 252
9.6 Assessing Project Risk......Page 254
References......Page 256
10.1 Introduction......Page 257
10.2.1 Benchmarking Water Consumption......Page 258
10.2.2 Benchmarking Energy Consumption......Page 259
10.3.1 Water Management Policy......Page 261
10.3.3.1 Guest Rooms......Page 262
10.3.3.2 Public Amenities......Page 265
10.3.3.3 Kitchens......Page 273
10.3.3.4 Cooling Tower: Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration......Page 279
10.3.3.6 Ice-Making Machines......Page 280
10.3.3.9 Irrigation......Page 283
10.5 Guest Awareness Programmes......Page 285
References......Page 286
11.2.1 Industry Structure and Water Usage......Page 288
11.2.2 Water-Usage Benchmarks......Page 290
11.2.2.1 Energy Consumption......Page 291
11.2.2.2 Shopping Centres......Page 292
11.2.3 Water-Saving Opportunities......Page 293
11.3 Hospitals......Page 296
11.3.1 Benchmarking Water Usage......Page 297
11.3.2 Benchmarking Energy Consumption......Page 298
11.3.3.1 Monitor Leakage......Page 299
11.3.3.4 Taps, Toilets and Urinals......Page 300
11.3.3.6 In-house Laundries......Page 301
11.3.3.7 Medical Equipment......Page 302
11.4 Correctional Centres......Page 306
11.4.2 Water Conservation Opportunities......Page 307
References......Page 309
12.1.1 Swimming Pool Benchmarks......Page 312
12.2 Water Conservation Opportunities......Page 313
12.2.2 Water-Efficient Fixtures......Page 314
12.2.3 Optimising Filter Backwash Cycles......Page 315
12.2.4 Minimising Evaporation......Page 317
References......Page 320
13.1 Introduction......Page 321
13.2.1 Water Usage......Page 322
13.2.2 Energy Usage......Page 324
13.3 Understanding the Process and Where Water is Used......Page 327
13.4 Benchmarking Water Usage and Comparing it Against Best Practice......Page 328
13.5.1 Avoiding Water Usage......Page 331
13.5.2 Reducing Water Usage – Spray Nozzles......Page 333
13.5.4 Reducing Water Usage – Clean-in-Place......Page 337
13.5.5 Reducing Water Usage – Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps......Page 341
13.5.7 Reducing Water Usage – Evaporative Condensers and Cooling Towers......Page 346
13.5.9 Reusing Water......Page 347
13.5.10 Notes on Water-Reuse Applications......Page 348
References......Page 349
14.1 Introduction......Page 351
14.2.2 Thermal and Catalytic Cracking......Page 353
14.2.7 Blending......Page 354
14.3.2 Steam Systems......Page 356
14.3.3 Wastewater Systems......Page 358
14.3.4 Energy Usage......Page 359
14.4 Water Conservation Opportunities......Page 360
14.4.1 Reduction in water consumption......Page 362
References......Page 363
15.1 Introduction......Page 364
15.2.3 Large and Small On-premise Laundries......Page 365
15.3 Types of Laundry Equipment......Page 366
15.3.1 Washer-Extractor......Page 367
15.3.2 Continuous Batch Washers or Tunnel Washers......Page 368
15.4 Benchmarking......Page 369
15.5.1 Water and Energy Reuse......Page 370
15.5.2 Reuse for Wash Water Quality......Page 371
15.5.3 Reuse for Rinse Water Quality......Page 372
15.5.4 Ozone Disinfection......Page 374
References......Page 376
Glossary of Terms......Page 378
Worksheets......Page 385
Conversions......Page 390
Index......Page 393