A History of Western Art

Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Preface
1 Why Do We Study the History of Art?
	The Artistic Impulse
		Chronology
	Why Do We Value Art?
		Material Value
		Brancusi’s Bird: Manufactured Metal or a Work of Art?
		Intrinsic Value
		Religious Value
		Nationalistic Value
		Psychological Value
	Art and Illusion
		Images and Words
		Traditions Equating Artists with Gods
	Art and Identification
		Reflections and Shadows: Legends of How Art Began
		Image Magic
		Architecture
	Archaeology and Art History
	Methodologies of Art History
		Formalism
		Iconography and Iconology
		Marxism
		Feminism
		Biography and Autobiography
		Semiology
		Deconstruction
		Psychoanalysis
2 The Language of Art
	Composition
	Plane
	Balance
	Line
		Expressive Qualities of Line
		Lines Used for Modeling
	The Illusion of Depth
		Perspective
	Space
	Shape
		Types of Shapes
		Expressive Qualities of Shape
	Light and Color
		Physical Properties of Color
		Expressive Qualities of Color
	Texture
	Stylistic Terminology
3 Prehistoric Western Europe
	The Stone Age
	Paleolithic
	Map: Prehistoric Sites in Europe
		Sculpture
		TECHNIQUE: Carving
		TECHNIQUE: Modeling
		TECHNIQUE: Categories of Sculpture
		Painting
		MEDIA: Pigment
	Beyond the West: Rock Paintings of Australia
	Mesolithic
	Neolithic
		Menhirs
		Dolmens
		Cromlechs
		ARCHITECTURE: Post-and-Lintel Construction
4 The Ancient Near East
	The Neolithic Era
	Map: The Mediterranean and the Ancient Near East
		Jericho
		Çatal Hüyük
	Mesopotamia
		The Uruk Period
		PRIMARY SOURCE: Inanna
		RELIGION: Mesopotamian Gods
		Ziggurats
		Cylinder Seals
		From Pictures to Words
		LITERATURE: Gilgamesh
		Sumer: Early Dynastic Period
		Akkad
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Sargon of Akkad
		Neo-Sumerian
		The Ziggurat of Ur
		Babylon
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: The Law Code of Hammurabi
	Anatolia: The Hittites
		Assyria
		TECHNIQUE: Glazing
		The Neo-Babylonian Empire
		ARCHITECTURE: Round Arches
	Iran
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Destroying the Archaeological Record
	The Scythians
	Achaemenid Persia
		ARCHITECTURE: Columns
5 Ancient Egypt
	The Gift of the Nile
	The Pharaohs
	The Egyptian Concept of Kingship
		CHRONOLOGY: Egyptian Kings
	Map: Ancient Egypt and Nubia
	The Palette of Narmer
	The Old Kingdom
		Pyramids
		RELIGION: Egyptian Gods
		Mummification
		Sculpture
		TECHNIQUE: The Egyptian Canon of Proportion
	The Middle Kingdom
	The New Kingdom
		Temples
		Painting
		The Amarna Period
	Tutankhamon’s Tomb
	Egypt and Nubia
		The Rock-Cut Temple of Ramses II
		Meroë
6 The Aegean
	Cycladic Civilization
	Map: The Ancient Aegean World
	Minoan Civilization
		The Palace at Knossos
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Minoan Fresco
		Religion
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Minoan Scripts
		Pottery
	Discoveries at Thera
		The Frescoes
	Mycenaean Civilization
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: The Legend of Agamemnon
7 The Art of Ancient Greece
	Map: Ancient Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean
	Cultural Identity
	Government and Philosophy
		PHILOSOPHY: Plato on Artists
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Women in Ancient Greece
	Literature and Drama
	“Man Is the Measure of All Things”
		RELIGION: Greek Gods and Their Roman Counterparts
	Painting and Pottery
		Geometric Style
		Orientalizing Style
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Greek Vases
		Archaic Style
		Late Archaic to Classical Style
		Classical to Hellenistic Style
	Sculpture
		Archaic Style
		Early Classical Style
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: The Lost-Wax Process
		Classical Style
	Classical Architecture: The Athenian Acropolis
		The Parthenon
		ARCHITECTURE: Plan of the Parthenon
		ARCHITECTURE: The Greek Orders
		MYTH: Medusa
		The Temple of Athena Nike
		The Erechtheum
	Late Classical Style
		The Greek Theater
		ARCHITECTURE: Greek Theater
		Sculpture
		STYLE: The “Hermes of Praxiteles”
	Hellenistic Period
		Sculpture
		MYTH: The Trojan Horse
8 The Art of the Etruscans
	Map: Etruscan and Roman Italy
	Architecture
	Pottery and Sculpture
	Women in Etruscan Art
	Funerary Art
		Cinerary Containers
		Sarcophagi
		Tomb Paintings
9 Ancient Rome
	Map: The Roman Empire, A.D. 14–284
		PRIMARY SOURCE: Virgil’s Aeneid
		CHRONOLOGY: Roman Periods
		ARCHITECTURE: Arches, Domes, and Vaults
	Architectural Types
		Domestic Architecture
		HISTORY: Julius Caesar
		Public Buildings
		MEDIA: Roman Building Materials
		Religious Architecture
		Commemorative Architecture
		PRIMARY SOURCE: Josephus and the Jewish Wars
	Sculptural Types
		The Sarcophagus
		MEDIA: Color Symbolism in Roman Marble
		Portraits
	Pictorial Style
		Painting and Mosaic
		HISTORY: Marcus Aurelius: Emperor and Philosopher
10 Early Christian and Byzantine Art
	A New Religion
	Constantine and Christianity
	The Divergence of East and West
		RELIGION: Christianity and the Scriptures
		RELIGION: Christianity Symbolism
	Early Christian Art
		Sarcophagi
		HISTORY: The Catacombs
		Basilicas
		RELIGION: Saint Peter
		Centrally Planned Churches
	Justinian and the Byzantine Style
		San Vitale
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Mosaics
		Hagia Sophia
	The Codex
		MEDIA: Parchment
		The Vienna Genesis
	Later Byzantine Developments
11 The Early Middle Ages
	Islamic Art
		RELIGION: Islam
		The Great Mosque, Córdoba
	Northern European Art
		Anglo-Saxon Metalwork
		PRIMARY SOURCE: Beowulf
		Hiberno-Saxon Art
		The Carolingian Period
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Manuscript Illumination
	Map: The Holy Roman Empire under Charlemagne
		The Palace Chapel
		Manuscripts
		RELIGION: Revelation and the Four Symbols of the Evangelists
		Monasteries
	Ottonian Period
12 Romanesque Art
	Economic and Political Developments
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Feudalism
	Pilgrimage Roads
	Map: Pilgrimage Roads to Santiago de Compostela, Spain
	Architecture
		Sainte-foy at Conques
		Developments at Autun
	The Stavelot Reliquary Triptych
	Manuscripts
	Mural Painting
	The “Bayeux Tapestry”
13 Gothic Art
	Origins of the Gothic Style in France
	Early Gothic Architecture: Saint-Denis
		RELIGION: The Life of Saint Denis
	Elements of Gothic Architecture
		Rib Vaults
		Piers
		Flying Buttresses
		Pointed Arches
		The Skeleton
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Guilds
		Stained-Glass Windows
	Romanesque Precursors of Gothic
	The Age of Cathedrals
	Chartres
		Exterior Architecture of Chartres
		Exterior Sculpture of Chartres
		Interior of Chartres
	Later Developments of the French Gothic Style
		Reims
		Paris: Reliquary Chapel of Sainte-Chapelle
		The Saint Louis Psalter
	English Gothic
		Salisbury Cathedral
	German Gothic
		Cologne Cathedral
14 Precursors of the Renaissance
	Thirteenth-Century Italy
		Nicola Pisano
		Training an Artist
	Map: Leading Art Centers in Renaissance Italy
	Fourteenth-Century Italy
		LITERATURE: Dante: Poet of Heaven and Hell
		Cimabue
		Giotto
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Tempera
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Altarpieces
		The Arena Chapel
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Fresco
	Painting in Siena
		Duccio’s Rucellai Madonna
		The Maestà
		The Kiss of Judas
		Ambrogio Lorenzetti and the Effects of Good Government
	The International Gothic Style
		Claus Sluter
		The Limbourg Brothers
15 The Early Renaissance
	Italy in the Fifteenth Century
		Renaissance Humanism
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: The Humanist Movement
	Map: Leading Art Centers in Renaissance Italy
		The Competition for the Florence Baptistery Doors
		Brunelleschi’s Architecture
		HISTORY: Vasari’s Lives
		Linear Perspective
		Ghiberti’s East Baptistery Doors
	Early-Fifteenth-Century Painting
		Masaccio
		TECHNIQUE: Aerial Perspective
		International Style in Italy: Gentile da Fabriano
	Early-Fifteenth-Century Sculpture: Donatello’s David
	Second-Generation Developments
		Leon Battista Alberti
		The Theme of David and Goliath
		The Equestrian Portrait
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Soldiers of Fortune
		State Portraits
		MEDIA: Oil Painting
		Monumentality versus Spirituality in Fifteenth-Century Painting
		Filippo Lippi
		Andrea Mantegna’s Illusionism
		HISTORY: Isabella d’Este
		Botticelli’s Mythological Subject Matter
		PHILOSOPHY: The Platonic Academy
	Fifteenth-Century Painting in the Netherlands
	Map: Northern and Central Europe during the Renaissance
		Campin’s Mérode Altarpiece
		Jan van Eyck
		Rogier van der Weyden
		Later Developments
16 The High Renaissance in Italy
	Architecture
		The Ideal of the Circle and Centrally Planned Churches
		St. Peter’s and the Centralized Plan
		HISTORY: Julius II
	Painting and Sculpture
		Leonardo da Vinci
		TECHNIQUE: Sfumato
		Michelangelo Buonarroti
		Raphael
	Developments in Venice
		Gentile Bellini
		Giovanni Bellini and the Sacra Conversazione
		THEORY: Pietro Aretino on Color versus Drawing
		Giorgione
		Titian
17 Mannerism and the Later Sixteenth Century in Italy
	Politics and Religion
		HISTORY: The Reformation
	Mannerism
		Mannerist Painting
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Vasari on Women Artists
		Mannerist Sculpture
		HISTORY: The Counter-Reformation
	Counter-Reformation Painting
		Tintoretto
		HISTORY: The Painter’s Daughter
		El Greco
	Architecture: Andrea Palladio
		THEORY: Palladio’s four Books of Architecture
18 Sixteenth-Century Painting and Printmaking in Northern Europe
	Humanism in the North
	Map: Northern and Central Europe during the Renaissance
		HISTORY: Martin Luther
	The Netherlands
		Hieronymus Bosch
		Caterina van Hemessen
		Pieter Bruegel the Elder
		LITERATURE: W. H. Auden’s Icarus
	Germany
		Albrecht Dürer
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Printmaking
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: The Myth of the Mad Artist
		hISTORY: Erasmus
		Matthias Grünewald
		Lucas Cranach
		Hans Holbein the Younger
19 The Baroque Style in Western Europe
	Religion, Politics, and Science
	Baroque Style
	Map: Europe during the Baroque Period
	Architecture
		Italy
		France
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: The French Academy
		England
	Sculpture: Gianlorenzo Bernini
	Italian Baroque Painting
		Caravaggio
		Artemisia Gentileschi
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Women as Artists
		Giovanni Battista Gaulli
	Baroque Painting in Northern Europe
		Flanders: Peter Paul Rubens
		Holland: Rembrandt van Rijn
		TECHNIQUE ETCHING
		Frans Hals
		Judith Leyster
		Jan Vermeer
		Jacob van Ruisdael
		Maria van Oosterwyck
	Beyond the West: Mughal Art and the Baroque
	Spanish Baroque Painting
		Juan Sánchez Cotán
		Francesco de Zurbarán
		Diego Velázquez
	French Baroque Painting: Nicolas Poussin
20 Rococo, the Eighteenth Century, and Revival Styles
	Rococo Style
	Cultural Developments
	The Age of Enlightenment
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Salons and Salonnières
	Painting in France
		Antoine Watteau
		Jean-Honoré Fragonard
		Adélaïde Labille-Guiard
		Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun
		HISTORY: Prelude to the French Revolution
		Bourgeois Realism: Jean-Baptiste Chardin
	Painting in England
		Thomas Gainsborough
		William Hogarth
	Rococo Architecture in Germany
		Balthasar Neumann
		Matthäus Daniel Pöppelmann
		Dominikus Zimmermann
	Architectural Revivals in England
		Classicism: Lord Burlington and Robert Adam
		Gothic Revival: Horace Walpole
	The Classical Revival in Painting: Angelica Kauffmann
	American Painting
		John Singleton Copley
		Benjamin West
	Map: North American Settlements in the 18th Century
21 Neoclassicism: The Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries
	The Neoclassical Style in France
		Jacques-Louis David
		CHRONOLOGY: The French Revolution and the Reign of Napoleon
	Map: The Napoleonic Empire, 1812
		Napoleon and the Arts
		Marie-Guillemine Benoist
		Antonio Canova
		Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
	Developments in America
		The American Revolution
		The Architecture of Thomas Jefferson
		CHRONOLOGY: The American Campaign for Independence
	Map: The United States during Jefferson’s Presidency
		John trumbull’s Declaration of Independence
		Greenough’s George Washington
22 Romanticism: The Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries
	The Romantic Movement
	Architecture
		MUSIC AND POETRY: Romanticism in Music and Poetry
	Sculpture: François Rude
	Painting in Europe
		William Blake
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Watercolor
		Théodore Géricault
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: The Salon
		Eugène Delacroix
		Francisco de Goya y Lucientes
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Aquatint
		Caspar David Friedrich
		THEORY The Aesthetic of the Sublime
		John Constable and Joseph Mallord William Turner
	Painting in the United States
		Thomas Cole
		Albert Bierstadt
		Folk Art: Edward Hicks
		LITERATURE: American Romantic Writers
23 Nineteenth-Century Realism
	Culture and Politics
		THEORY: Marx and Engels: The Communist Manifesto
		LITERATURE: Realism
	French Realism
		Jean-François Millet
		Rosa Bonheur
		Gustave Courbet
		Honoré Daumier
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Lithography
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Daumier and Satire
	Photography
		France: Nadar
		England: Julia Margaret Cameron
		America: Mathew Brady
	American Realist Painting
		Thomas Eakins’s Gross Clinic
		Henry Ossawa Tanner
	French Realism in the 1860s
		Édouard Manet’s Déjeuner sur l’Herbe
		Manet’s Olympia
	Architecture
		Joseph Paxton: The Crystal Palace
		Bridges: The Roeblings
		The Eiffel Tower
		Origins of the Skyscraper: Louis Sullivan
24 Nineteenth-Century Impressionism
	Context and Style
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Urban Renewal during the Second Empire
	Painting in France
		Édouard Manet: 1880s
		Pierre-Auguste Renoir
		Edgar Degas
		Mary Cassatt
		Berthe Morisot
		Claude Monet
		Views of Paris: Renoir and Pissarro
	Beyond the West: Japanese Woodblock Prints
	French Sculpture: Auguste Rodin
	American Painting at the Turn of the Century
		Winslow Homer
		John Singer Sargent
	“Art for Art’s Sake”
		Whistler versus Ruskin
25 Post-Impressionism and the Late Nineteenth Century
	Post-Impressionist Painting
		Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
		Paul Cézanne
		SYMBOLISM: An Apple a Day . . .
		Georges Seurat
		Vincent van Gogh
		PRIMARY SOURCE: “Dear Theo”—The Letters of Vincent van Gogh
		Paul Gauguin
	Beyond the West: Gauguin and Oceania
	Symbolism
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: The Symbolist Movement
		Gustave Moreau
		Edvard Munch
	Naïve Painting: Henri Rousseau
		HISTORY: Freud on the Mechanisms of Dreaming
26 The Early Twentieth Century: Picasso, Fauvism, Expressionism, and Matisse
	Culture and Context
	Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse
	Symbolism: Picasso’s Blue Period
		LITERATURE: Wallace Stevens: “The Man with the Blue Guitar”
	Beyond the West: African Art and the European Avant-Garde
	Fauvism: Matisse in 1905–6
	Expressionism
		The Bridge (Die Brücke)
		Ernst Ludwig Kirchner
		Emil Nolde
		The Blue Rider (Der Blaue Reiter)
		Vassily Kandinsky
		Franz Marc
		Käthe Kollwitz
	Matisse after Fauvism
		Harmony in Red
		Dance I
		Icarus
27 Cubism, Futurism, and Related Twentieth-Century Styles
	Cubism
		Precursors
		HISTORY: Gertrude Stein
		Analytic Cubism: Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque
		Collage
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Collage and Assemblage
		Synthetic Cubism
		Picasso’s Surrealism
		Picasso’s Guernica
	Other Early-Twentieth-Century Developments
		Futurism
		Fernand Léger’s City
		Piet Mondrian
		The Armory Show
		Stuart Davis
		Aaron Douglas and the Harlem Renaissance
		Kazimir Malevich: Suprematism
		Postscript
	Architecture
		Frank Lloyd Wright and the Prairie Style
		ARCHITECTURE: Cantilever
	The International Style
		Holland: De Stijl
		Germany: The Bauhaus
		France: Le Corbusier
		The United States
28 Dada, Surrealism, Social Realism, Regionalism, and Abstraction
	Dada
		Marcel Duchamp
		Jean (Hans) Arp
	Surrealism
		Man Ray
		Paul Klee
		Salvador Dalí
		Joan Miró
		René Magritte
	Sculpture Derived from Surrealism
		Max Ernst
		Alberto Giacometti
		Henry Moore
		Alexander Calder
	The United States: Regionalism and Social Realism
		Grant Wood
		Jacob Lawrence
		Edward Hopper
		James VanDerZee
		Dorothea Lange
	Mexico
		Diego Rivera
		Frida Kahlo
	Toward American Abstraction
		Alfred Stieglitz
		Georgia O’Keeffe
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: American Self-Taught Painters
	Transcendental Painting
29 Mid-Century American Abstraction
	The Teachers: Hans Hofmann and Josef Albers
	Abstract Expressionism
		The New York School
		Arshile Gorky
		THEORY: Critics and the Avant-Garde
	Action Painting
		Jackson Pollock
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Navajo Sand Painting
		Franz Kline
		Willem de Kooning
		Mark Rothko
	Color Field Painting
		Helen Frankenthaler
		MEDIA AND TECHNIQUE: Acrylic
		Frank Stella
		Ellsworth Kelly
	West Coast Abstraction: Richard Diebenkorn
	Sculpture
		Isamu Noguchi
		David Smith
		Louise Nevelson
30 Pop Art, Op Art, Minimalism, and Conceptualism
	Pop Art in England: Richard Hamilton
	Pop Art in the United States
		Jasper Johns
		Robert Rauschenberg
		Andy Warhol
		Roy Lichtenstein
		Tom Wesselmann
		Wayne Thiebaud
	Sculpture
		George Segal
		Claes Oldenburg
		Niki de Saint-Phalle
		Marisol Escobar
	Op Art
	Minimalism
		Donald Judd
		Dan Flavin
		Agnes Martin
		Eva Hesse
	Conceptualism
		Joseph Kosuth
		Sol LeWitt
	Action Sculpture: Joseph Beuys
31 Continuity, Innovation, and Globalization
	Return to Realism
		Chuck Close
		Richard Estes
		Duane Hanson
		Ron Mueck and Constantin Brancusi
	Performance
		Gilbert and George
		Laurie Anderson
	Architecture
		The Geodesic Dome: R. Buckminster Fuller
		Post-Modern Architecture
	Environmental Art
		Robert Smithson
		Andy Goldsworthy
		Christo and Jeanne-Claude
		Urban Environment
		SOCIETY AND CULTURE: Government Funding and Censorship
		Installations
	Feminist Art
		Judy Chicago
		Kiki Smith
		Elizabeth Murray
	Race and Gender
		Bob Thompson
		Romare Bearden
		Kara Walker
		Yasumasa Morimura
	Plus ça change . . .
		Anselm Kiefer
		Maya Lin
		Nancy Graves
		Bruce Nauman and Marcel Duchamp
		Cindy Sherman
		Video Art
Notes
Glossary
Suggestions for Further Reading
Literary Acknowledgments
Picture Credits
Index