A History of Nerve Functions: From Animal Spirits to Molecular Mechanisms

COVER......Page 1
HALF-TITLE......Page 3
TITLE......Page 5
COPYRIGHT......Page 6
CONTENTS......Page 7
PREFACE......Page 9
THE EARLY CONCEPTION OF NERVE CONFOUNDED WITH TENDONS......Page 13
PRIMITIVE ANIMISTIC BELIEF IN SPIRITS ANIMATING THINGS, AS WELL AS LIVING BEINGS......Page 15
ANCIENT BELIEF IN POWERS RESIDING IN THE HEAD INDICATED BY TREPANATION......Page 18
The rise of Greek philosophy and science......Page 20
CONCEPTION OF NERVES AS CHANNELS FOR SENSATION AND MOTION......Page 22
PLATONIC TEACHING ON THE BRAIN......Page 23
HIPPOCRATIC TEACHING ON THE BRAIN......Page 26
THE ATOMISM OF THE EPICUREANS......Page 27
STOICISM......Page 29
ARISTOTLE: THE HEART AS THE SEAT OF THE SOUL......Page 30
CHANNELS FOR SENSATION AND PERCEPTION......Page 32
THE ALEXANDRIANS: THE DIFFERENTIATION OF NERVES FROM TENDONS......Page 34
GALENIC PHYSICS IN RELATION TO HIS PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORY......Page 36
THE PRESENCE OF BLOOD IN THE ARTERIES......Page 38
TRANSFORMATION OF SPIRITS......Page 39
DIFFERENCES IN THE VENTRICLES IN RELATION TO FUNCTION......Page 41
VENTRICULAR INTERVENTIONS......Page 42
GALEN’S VIEW OF VISION......Page 44
GALEN’S ALTERNATE CONCEPTION OF HARD AND SOFT NERVES......Page 45
3 NERVE, BRAIN, AND SOUL IN THE MIDDLE AGES......Page 48
TRANSFORMATION OF POLITICAL AND RELIGIOUS STRUCTURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES......Page 49
CELL THEORY: A SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION OF THE BRAIN VENTRICLES......Page 53
THE TRANSMISSION OF GREEK LEARNING TO THE WEST......Page 55
ISLAMIC CONTRIBUTIONS TO MEDICAL THOUGHT AND THE THEORY OF VISION......Page 57
THE RELATION OF SPIRIT TO SOUL DURING THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES......Page 58
THE LATER MIDDLE AGES......Page 59
4 RENAISSANCE AND THE NEW PHYSIOLOGY......Page 62
THE NEW EXPERIMENTALIST VIEW OF THE WORLD......Page 69
CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD: THE OVERTHROW OF (MOST OF) GALENIC PHYSIOLOGY......Page 70
5 NEW PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL MODELS OF NERVE IN THE ENLIGHTENMENT......Page 75
DESCARTES’ CONCEPTION OF THE MOVEMENT OF ANIMAL SPIRITS IN THE NERVES AND BRAIN......Page 76
NERVES COMPOSED OF SMALL HOLLOW TUBULES......Page 77
THE PIVOTAL POSITION OF THE PINEAL GLAND IN THE CONTROL OF ANIMAL SPIRITS......Page 79
RECIPROCAL ACTION OF MUSCLES......Page 81
THE REFLEX......Page 82
THE BREAKDOWN OF DESCARTES’ MODEL......Page 85
WILLIS AND HIS CIRCLE......Page 87
WILLIS’ CONTRAST OF THE SOUL OF BRUTES WITH THE RATIONAL SOUL OF MAN......Page 89
THE MOVEMENT OF ANIMAL SPIRITS IN NERVE......Page 91
THE PRODUCTION OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS......Page 93
PLETHYSMOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE AGAINST AN INFLATION OF MUSCLE CAUSING CONTRACTION......Page 94
BORELLI’S MECHANICAL ACCOUNT OF NERVE ACTION AND MUSCLE CONTRACTION......Page 96
MALPIGHI AND HIS GLANDS IN THE BRAIN......Page 98
NERVE CONDUCTION BY ETHEREAL VIBRATIONS......Page 101
NERVE VIBRATIONS; A MUSICAL INTERLUDE......Page 103
BOERHAAVE’S SYSTEM OF NERVE FIBERS......Page 105
VON HALLER’S PHYSIOLOGY OF NERVE......Page 107
LA METTRIE’S MATERIALISTIC ACCOUNT OF THE BRAIN AND MIND......Page 110
FORCES ACTING ON THE BRAIN CAUSING MOVEMENT OF NERVE FLUID......Page 112
THE SYMPATHETIC (AUTONOMIC, INVOLUNTARY) NERVOUS SYSTEM......Page 114
THE ROLE OF THE GANGLIA......Page 116
A MECHANICAL THEORY OF GANGLION ACTION......Page 117
OTHER EXPONENTS OF VIBRATORY THEORY AS THE AGENT OF NERVE ACTION......Page 118
STATIC ELECTRICITY......Page 120
A TYPE OF ANIMAL ELECTRICITY SHOWN BY ELECTRIC FISH......Page 125
THE THERAPEUTIC USE OF ELECTRICITY......Page 127
MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC CURES THAT FAILED......Page 129
GALVANI AND ANIMAL ELECTRICITY......Page 130
DISPUTE OF VOLTA WITH GALVANI OVER THE REALITY OF ANIMAL ELECTRICITY......Page 133
MEASUREMENT OF NERVE CONDUCTION VELOCITY......Page 134
THE IONIC BASIS OF MEMBRANE AND PROPAGATED ACTION POTENTIALS......Page 136
RECORDING OF COMPOUND AND SINGLE FIBER ACTION POTENTIAL RESPONSES......Page 137
The sodium hypothesis......Page 138
MICROELECTRODE RECORDING OF MEMBRANE POTENTIALS......Page 139
8 NERVE FIBER FORM AND TRANSFORMATION......Page 142
EARLY MICROSCOPIC STUDIES OF THE NERVE FIBER......Page 143
STUDIES USING MICROSCOPES EQUIPPED WITH IMPROVED ACHROMATIC LENSES......Page 146
REMAK’S FUNDAMENTAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE NERVE FIBER TO THE CELL BODY: HIS ‘‘EARLY NEURON”  VIEW AGAINST THE ‘‘TWO-NEURAL ELEMENT” CONCEPT OF PURKINJE AND VALENTIN......Page 148
CONFIRMATION OF THE NEURON DOCTRINE......Page 154
THE SCHWANN CELL IN RELATION TO THE AXON OF THE NERVE FIBER......Page 155
THE STRUCTURE AND FORMATION OF THE MYELIN SHEATH......Page 156
THE FUNCTIONAL ROLE OF MYELINATION......Page 158
DIFFERENTIATION OF THE FIBRILLARY STRUCTURES IN THE AXON AND THEIR PUTATIVE FUNCTIONS......Page 160
CHARACTERIZATION OF THE TRANSFORMATION OF FIBER FORM SEEN AS BEADING......Page 165
SPATIAL FEATURES OF BEADING IN ISOLATED FIBERS......Page 168
THE LOCUS OF THE MECHANISM BRINGING ABOUT BEADING......Page 170
SHIFT OF MYELIN SHEATH COMPONENTS IN BEADED FIBERS......Page 175
INTRUSIONS, INFOLDING, AND LEAFING OF MYELIN SHEATH LAMELLAE IN THE BEADED FIBER......Page 176
INITIATION OF BEADING BY AGENTS OTHER THAN STRETCH: BEADING A GENERALIZED PROPERTY OF THE FIBER......Page 178
THE BELL-MAGENDIE LAW......Page 181
WALLER’S LAWS OF DEGENERATION......Page 182
THE PROXIMO-DISTAL PROGRESSION OF WALLERIAN DEGENERATION......Page 188
TWO STAGES OF WALLERIAN DEGENERATION; BEADING FOLLOWED BY CYTOSKELETON DISINTEGRATION AND OVOID FORMATION......Page 192
DEGENERATION OF UNMYELINATED AXONS......Page 193
EFFECT OF NERVE DEGENERATION ON MUSCLE......Page 194
CHANGES OF MUSCLE MEMBRANE PROPERTIES AFTER DENERVATION......Page 196
NEUROTROPHIC CONTROL OF TISSUES OTHER THAN MUSCLE......Page 197
10 NERVE REGENERATION......Page 199
EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES TO SHOW THE REGENERATION OF NERVE......Page 202
THE LETHAL EFFECT OF A DOUBLE VAGOTOMY......Page 207
REGENERATION OF PERIPHERAL NERVES IN THE LIMBS......Page 208
REUNION VERSUS REGENERATION......Page 210
WALLER’S LATER REVERSION TO THE REUNIONIST POSITION......Page 212
CELL BODY CHANGES IN THE COURSE OF REGENERATION......Page 214
NEUROTROPISM -- THE DIRECTION OF GROWING NEURITES......Page 216
SPECIFICITY OF ACTION OF NEUROTROPIC FACTORS......Page 220
MOLECULAR PROCESSES IN THE GROWTH CONE RELATING TO STRUCTURAL CHANGES......Page 222
SPINAL CORD REGENERATION......Page 224
EARLY HYPOTHESES OF TRANSPORT BASED ON CELL BODY CHANGES......Page 227
DAMMING, THE HYPOTHESIS OF A BULK FLOW OF AXOPLASM......Page 229
THE HYPOTHESIS OF AN OUTFLOW OF FLUID AXOPLASM FROM THE CELL BODY......Page 233
CHARACTERIZATION OF TRANSPORT USING ISOTOPE LABELING......Page 235
CHARACTERISTICS OF FAST TRANSPORT; PATTERN AND RATE......Page 241
THE RATE OF FAST TRANSPORT DOES NOT VARY WITH FIBER DIAMETER......Page 242
THE TRANSPORT MECHANISM IS PRESENT ALL ALONG THE LENGTH OF THE NERVE FIBER......Page 243
ROUTING: DIRECTED TRANSPORT OF COMPONENTS INTO FIBER BRANCHES......Page 245
TURNAROUND AND RETROGRADE TRANSPORT......Page 247
TRANSPORT IN VITRO......Page 249
FAST TRANSPORT IN THE NERVES OF NONMAMMALIAN SPECIES......Page 251
TRANSPORT IN THE VISUAL SYSTEM......Page 253
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSPORTED PROTEINS......Page 256
a. The cholinergic system......Page 259
b. The adrenergic system......Page 263
c. Serotonin transport......Page 267
d. Transport of vasopressin and oxytocin hormones in the stalk of the hypothalamo-neurohypophysial system......Page 269
VISUALIZATION OF PARTICLE TRANSPORT IN LIVING FIBERS AND AXOPLASM WITH NOMARSKI OPTICS AND AVEC-DIC MICROSCOPY......Page 270
AXOPLASMIC TRANSPORT: AN ENERGY-DRIVEN MECHANISM......Page 271
EARLY VIEWS ON FIBRILLARY MATERIAL IN THE FIBERS IN RELATION TO TRANSPORT......Page 275
MODELS OF FAST TRANSPORT......Page 276
a. Models of fast transport based on motor molecules......Page 281
b. Models of fast transport not based on motor molecules......Page 285
a. Bulk flow hypotheses of transport......Page 286
b. Slow transport of cytoskeletal organelles: the ‘‘structural hypothesis”......Page 287
c. Slow transport of cytoskeleton subunits turning over in a stationary cytoskeleton......Page 289
THE UNITARY HYPOTHESIS: A SINGLE MECHANISM OF TRANSPORT FOR SLOW, INTERMEDIATE, AND FAST RATES......Page 294
BLOCK OF SYNTHESIS IN CELL BODIES CAUSING FAILURE OF TRANSPORT......Page 296
RELATION OF MEMBRANE ACTIVITY TO TRANSPORT......Page 299
CALCIUM AND CALMODULIN-BLOCKING AGENTS......Page 300
AGENTS BLOCKING METABOLISM SUPPLYING ENERGY FOR TRANSPORT......Page 304
NEUROTOXINS ACTING ON MICROTUBULES TO BLOCK TRANSPORT......Page 306
NEUROTOXIC AGENTS ACTING ON NEUROFILAMENTS TO IMPEDE TRANSPORT......Page 308
AGENTS PRODUCING THE PROGRESSIVE EFFECTS SEEN AS ‘‘DYING BACK” AND ‘‘DYING FORWARD”......Page 311
DIFFERENTIAL EFFECT OF A NEUROTOXIN ON SENSORY AND MOTOR FIBERS......Page 314
TRANSPORT DEFECTS IN HUMAN NEUROPATHIES......Page 315
REFLEXES AND THE SPINAL SOUL......Page 317
REFLEXES AND INTEGRATION IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM......Page 320
ENCEPHALIZATION: THE CHANGED RELATION OF THE BRAIN TO SPINAL REFLEX BEHAVIOR IN THE COURSE OF EVOLUTION......Page 322
INSTINCTIVE (INNATE) BEHAVIOR......Page 324
EVOLUTION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: A PROCESS OF DIFFERENTIATION AND DEVELOPMENT......Page 326
LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTION IN THE CORTEX......Page 329
CHANGES IN THE CONNECTIVITY (SYNAPSIS) OF NEURONS IN THE CEREBRAL CORTEX RELATED TO HIGHER FUNCTION......Page 332
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES THAT RELATE LEARNING TO SYNAPTIC CHANGES......Page 337
THE CELL-ASSEMBLY THEORY OF HEBB......Page 338
LONG-TERM POTENTIATION IN HIPPOCAMPAL NEURONS......Page 340
INTEGRATION IN DENDRITES AND THEIR SPINES......Page 343
THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF MEMORY CONSOLIDATION......Page 344
mRNA PROVIDING SELECTIVE CHANGES IN SPINES AT SYNAPTIC SITES RELATED TO LEARNING AND MEMORY......Page 347
CELL CHANGES IN SPECIFIC REGIONS OF BRAIN AFTER SINGLE TRIAL LEARNING......Page 348
RETENTION OF LEARNING AND ITS TRANSFER IN MAMMALIAN BRAIN USING SPREADING DEPRESSION......Page 351
NEUROGENESIS IN THE ADULT BRAIN......Page 356
PHANTOM LIMB: THE PERCEPTION OF BODY REGIONS IN RELATIONSHIP TO THE BRAIN......Page 358
16 EPILOGUE: WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE RELATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM TO MIND......Page 365
LEARNING PARADIGMS IN THE STUDY OF HIGHER FUNCTIONS......Page 367
SELECTIVE CHANGES OF PERCEPTION......Page 368
SENSORY-PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES......Page 370
THE INNATENESS OF PERCEPTIONS......Page 371
PHILOSOPHICAL ASPECTS OF SENSATION AND PERCEPTION......Page 373
HIGHER COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS......Page 374
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY......Page 375
BIBLIOGRAPHY......Page 379
INDEX......Page 433