A History of Greece, Volume 11 of 12, originally published in 1853

Cover......Page 1
Frontmatter......Page 6
PREFACE......Page 8
Contents......Page 10
CHAPTER LXXXIII - Sicilian Affairs (continued).---From the Destruction of the Carthaginian Army by Pestilence before Syracuse, down to the Death of Dionysius the Elder......Page 36
Mutiny among the mercenaries of Dionysius--Aristoteles their commander is sent away to Sparta......Page 37
Difficulties of Dionysius arising from his mercenaries--heavy burden of paying them......Page 38
Dionysius re-establishes Messênê with new inhabitants......Page 39
Conquests of Dionysius in the interior of Sicily......Page 40
Alarm at Rhegium--Dionysius attacks the Sikel town of Tauromenium--desperate defence of the Sikels--Dionysius is repulsed and nearly slain......Page 41
Agrigentum declares against Dionysius--reappearance of the Carthaginian army under Magon......Page 43
Expedition of Dionysius against Rhegium--he fails in surprising the town--he concludes a truce for one year......Page 44
Magon again takes the field at Agyrium--is repulsed by Dionysius--truce concluded......Page 45
Plans of Dionysius against the Greek cities in Southern Italy--great pressure upon these cities from the Samnites and Lucanians of the interior......Page 46
Alliance contracted among the Italiot Greeks, for defence both against the Lucanians and against Dionysius. Dionysius allies himself with the Lucanians......Page 49
Dionysius attacks Rhegium--the Rhegines save the Krotoniate fleet--fleet of Dionysius ruined by a storm......Page 50
Defeat of the inhabitants of Thurii by the Lucanians. Leptines with the fleet of Dionysius off Läus--his conduct towards the survivors......Page 52
United army of the Italiot Greeks advances to relieve the place--their advanced guard is defeated, and Helôris the general slain......Page 54
The whole army is defeated and captured by Dionysius......Page 55
Generous lenity of Dionysius towards the prisoners......Page 56
Dionysius besieges Rhegium--he grants to them peace on severe terms......Page 57
He captures Kaulonia and Hipponium--inhabitants transported to Syracuse--territory made over to Lokri......Page 58
Artifices of Dionysius to impoverish and disarm the Rhegines......Page 59
He besieges Rhegium--desperate defence of the town under the general Phyton. Surrender of the place from famine, after a blockade of eleven months......Page 60
Cruel treatment of Phyton by Dionysius......Page 61
Strong sympathy excited by the fate of Phyton......Page 62
Rhegium dismantled--all the territory of the southern Calabrian peninsula united to Lokri......Page 64
Peace of Antalkidas--ascendent position of Sparta and of Dionysius. Kroton conquered by Dionysius. Splendid robe taken from the temple of Hêrê......Page 65
Schemes of Dionysius for transmarine colonies and conquests, in Epirus and Illyria......Page 67
Dionysius plunders the coast of Latium and Etruria, and the rich temple of Agylla......Page 69
Immense power of Dionysius--his poetical compositions......Page 70
Olympic festival of 384 B.C., the first after the peace of Antalkidas. Dionysius sends thither a splendid legation--also chariots to run--and poetical compositions to be recited......Page 72
Feelings of the crowd at the festival--Dikon of Kaulonia......Page 73
Harangue of Lysias at the festival against Dionysius, in reference to the political state of the Grecian world, and the sufferings of the enslaved Sicilians......Page 75
Hatred of the past, and fear of the future conquests of Dionysius, both prevalent......Page 76
Lysias exhorts his hearers to destroy the tents of the Syracusan legation at Olympia, as an act of retribution against Dionysius......Page 78
Explosion of antipathy against the poems of Dionysius recited at Olympia--insults heaped upon his name and person......Page 80
Excessive grief, wrath, and remorse, of Dionysius on hearing of this manifestation against him--his suspicions and cruelties......Page 81
Marked and singular character of the manifestation against Dionysius......Page 82
Plato visits Syracuse--is harshly treated by Dionysius--acquires great influence over Dion......Page 87
New constructions and improvements by Dionysius at Syracuse......Page 89
Intention of Dionysius to renew the war with Carthage......Page 90
War with Carthage. Victory of Dionysius over the Carthaginian army under Magon......Page 91
Second battle with the Carthaginians at Kronium, in which Dionysius is defeated with terrible loss......Page 92
He concludes peace with Carthage, on terms very unfavourable to himself: all the territory west of the river Halykus is surrendered to Carthage: he covenants to pay tribute to Carthage......Page 93
Affairs of Southern Italy: wall across the Calabrian peninsula projected, but not executed......Page 94
Relations of Dionysius with Central Greece......Page 95
New war undertaken by Dionysius against Carthage. He is at first successful, but is ultimately defeated near Lilybæum, and forced to return home......Page 96
Character of Dionysius......Page 98
Family left by Dionysius at his death......Page 110
Dion--his connection with the Dionysian family......Page 111
Personal character of Dion......Page 112
Plato, Dion, and the Pythagorean philosophers......Page 113
Extraordinary influence of Plato upon Dion......Page 114
Dion learns to hate the Dionysian despotism--he conceives large political and reformatory views......Page 116
Alteration of habits in Dion--he brings Plato into communication with Dionysius......Page 117
Dion maintains the good opinion and confidence of Dionysius, until the death of the latter--his visits to Peloponnesus......Page 119
Death of the elder Dionysius--divergences of interest between the two lines of family......Page 121
The younger Dionysius succeeds his father--his character......Page 122
Conduct of Dion--he submits to the younger Dionysius--gives him frank and wholesome advice......Page 123
Dion acquires great influence and estimation from Dionysius......Page 124
Recall of Philistus from exile......Page 126
Dion tries to work upon the mind of Dionysius, towards a freer political government and mental improvement......Page 127
His earnest exhortations produce considerable effect, inspiring Dionysius with a strong desire to see and converse with Plato......Page 128
Invitation sent to Plato, both by Dion and by Dionysius......Page 130
Hesitation of Plato--he reluctantly consents to visit Syracuse......Page 131
Plato visits Syracuse--unbounded deference and admiration manifested towards him at first by Dionysius--Fear and hatred felt by Philistus and other courtiers......Page 133
Injudicious manner in which Plato dealt with Dionysius......Page 135
Strenuous exhortations addressed by Plato and Dion to Dionysius, to reform himself......Page 136
Plato damps the inclination of Dionysius towards political good......Page 137
If Plato had tried to impel Dionysius towards a good practical use of his power, Dionysius might at that time have obeyed him, with the aid of Dion......Page 139
Intrigues by Philistus and others to set Dionysius against Plato and Dion......Page 140
Dionysius loses his inclinations towards political improvements--comes to hate Dion......Page 142
Banishment of Dion from Syracuse to Italy......Page 143
Dionysius retains Plato in the acropolis, but treats him well, and tries to conciliate his esteem......Page 144
He dismisses Plato--then recalls him--second visit of Plato to Syracuse--his dissatisfaction--Dionysius refuses to recall Dion......Page 146
Dionysius confiscates the property of Dion--mortification of Plato, who with difficulty obtains leave to depart from Syracuse......Page 147
Resolution of Dion to avenge himself on Dionysius, and to force his way back to Syracuse by arms......Page 149
Plato rejoins Dion in Peloponnesus--exasperation of Dion--Dionysius gives his sister Aretê, the wife of Dion, in marriage to Timokrates......Page 150
Means of auxiliaries of Dion--Plato--the Academy--Alkimenes. Dion musters his force at Zakynthus......Page 151
Circumstances which told against Dionysius--discontent at Syracuse......Page 153
Herakleides exiled from Syracuse--he projects an attack upon Dionysius, at the same time as Dion......Page 154
Alarm of the soldiers of Dion at Zakynthus, when first informed that they were going against Dionysius......Page 156
Eclipse of the moon--religious disquietude of the soldiers--they are re-assured by the prophet Miltas--fortunate voyage from Zakynthus to Sicily......Page 157
Dion lands at Herakleia--he learns that Dionysius with a large fleet has just quitted Syracuse for Italy......Page 159
March of Dion from Herakleia to Syracuse......Page 160
Dion crosses the river Anapus, and approaches the gates of Syracuse......Page 161
Mistake of Timokrates, left as governor of Syracuse in the absence of Dionysius......Page 162
General rising of the Syracusans to welcome and assist Dion. Timokrates is obliged to evacuate the city, leaving Ortygia and Epipolæ garrisoned......Page 163
Entry of Dion into Achradina--joy of the citizens--he proclaims liberty......Page 164
Dion presents himself at the Pentapyla in front of Ortygia--challenges the garrison of Ortygia to come out and fight--is chosen general by the Syracusans, with his brother Megakles......Page 165
Dion captures Epipolæ and Euryalus. He erects a cross-wall from sea to sea, to block up Ortygia......Page 167
Return of Dionysius to Syracuse. He tries to negotiate with Dion and the Syracusans--deceives them by fallacious propositions......Page 168
Sudden sally made by Dionysius to surprise the blockading wall--great bravery, efforts, and danger of Dion--he at length repulses the attack and recovers the wall......Page 170
Ortygia is again blocked up by land--efforts of Dionysius with his fleet--arrival of Herakleides from Peloponnesus with a fleet to cooperate against Dionysius......Page 172
Arrival of Philistus with his fleet to the aid of Dionysius. Battle in the Great Harbour between the fleet of Philistus and that of the Syracusans--Philistus is defeated and slain......Page 173
Intrigues of Dionysius against Dion in Syracuse......Page 174
Relationship of Dion to the Dionysian dynasty--suspicions entertained against him by the Syracusans--his haughty manners. Rivalry of Herakleides......Page 175
Herakleides is named admiral. Dion causes him to be deposed, and then moves himself for his re-appointment......Page 177
Intrigues and calumnies raised against Dion in Syracuse, by the management of Dionysius......Page 178
Mistrust of Dion by the Syracusans, mainly in consequence of his relationship to the Dionysian family. Calumnies of Sôsis......Page 179
Farther propositions of Dionysius. He goes away from Ortygia to Italy, leaving his son Apollokrates in command of the garrison......Page 180
Increased dissension between Dion and Herakleides--Dion is deposed and his soldiers deprived of the pay due to them--new generals are named......Page 181
Dion is forced to retreat from Syracuse--bad conduct of the new generals and of the people towards his soldiers......Page 182
Dion reaches Leontini--the Leontines stand by him against the Syracusans--arrival of Nypsius with a reinforcement to the Dionysian garrison in Ortygia......Page 183
Advantage gained by Herakleides and the Syracusans over Nypsius as he came into Ortygia--extravagant confidence in Syracuse--Nypsius sallies from Ortygia, and forces his way into Neapolis and Achradina......Page 185
Danger and distress of the Syracusans--they send to Leontini to invoke the aid of Dion......Page 186
Assembly at Leontini--pathetic address of Dion......Page 187
Reluctance of Herakleides to let Dion into Syracuse--renewed assault from Nypsius--unanimous prayers now sent to invite Dion......Page 188
Entrance of Dion into Syracuse--he draws up his troops on Epipolæ. Frightful condition of the city......Page 189
Dion drives back Nypsius and his troops into Ortygia--he extinguishes the flames, and preserves Syracuse......Page 190
Dion pardons Herakleides--his exposition of motives......Page 192
Remarkable features in this act of Dion......Page 194
Dion re-establishes the blockade of Ortygia, and ransoms the captives taken......Page 195
Dion is named general on land, at the motion of Herakleides, who is continued in his command of the fleet......Page 196
Attempt to supersede Dion through Gæsylus the Spartan--good conduct of Gæsylus......Page 198
Entry of Dion into Ortygia--restoration of his wife--speedy death of his son......Page 199
Conduct of Dion in the hour of triumph......Page 200
Suspicions previously entertained respecting Dion--that he was aiming at the despotism for himself--confirmed by his present conduct......Page 201
Intention of Dion to constitute himself king, with a Lykurgean scheme of government and discipline......Page 202
Mistake of Dion as to his position......Page 203
Dion takes no step to realise any measure of popular liberty......Page 204
Opposition raised against Dion by Herakleides--impatience of the Syracusans to see the demolition of the Dionsyian strongholds and funereal monument......Page 205
Increased oppressions of Dion--hatred entertained against him in Syracuse......Page 206
Disquietude and irritability of Dion on account of his unpopularity......Page 207
Conspiracy of Kallippus against him--artifices and perjury......Page 208
Kallippus causes Dion to be assassinated......Page 210
Life, sentiments, and altered position, of Dion......Page 211
Position and prospects of Kallippus, after the assassination of Dion......Page 216
He continues master of Syracuse more than a year. His misrule. Return of Hipparinus son of Dionysius to Syracuse. Expulsion of Kallippus......Page 217
Miserable condition of Syracuse and Sicily, as described by Plato......Page 218
Plato's recommendations fruitless--state of Syracuse grows worse. Dionysius returns to Ortygia, expelling Hipparinus......Page 220
Lokri--dependency and residence of the younger Dionysius......Page 221
Sufferings of the Italiot Greeks from the Lucanians and Bruttians of the interior......Page 222
Dionysius at Lokri--his unpopularity and outrageous misrule--cruel retaliation of the Lokrians upon his female relatives......Page 223
Distress of the Syracusans--fresh danger from Carthage. They invoke the aid of Hiketas--in concert with Hiketas, they send to entreat aid from Corinth......Page 224
Secret alliance of Hiketas with the Carthaginians--he conspires to defeat the application to Corinth......Page 225
Difficulty in finding a Corinthian leader--most of the leading citizens decline--Timoleon is proposed and chosen......Page 226
His conduct towards his brother Timophanes, whose life he saves in battle......Page 227
Timophanes makes himself despot, and commits gross oppression--Timoleon with two companions puts him to death......Page 228
Beneficial effects of the act upon Corinth--sentiment towards Timoleon......Page 230
Bitter reproach of Timoleon by his mother......Page 231
Intense mental distress of Timoleon. He shuts himself up and retires from public life......Page 232
Different judgements of modern and ancient minds on the act of Timoleon. Comments of Plutarch......Page 233
Timoleon is appointed commander to Syracuse--he accepts the command--admonition of Telekleides......Page 235
Preparations made by Timoleon--his scanty means--he engages some of the Phokian mercenaries......Page 236
Timoleon sets out for Sicily with a small squadron--favourable omens and oracular answers from the gods......Page 237
Timoleon arrives at Rhegium--is prevented from reaching Sicily by a Carthaginian fleet of superior force--insidious message from Hiketas......Page 238
Stratagem of Timoleon to get across to Sicily, in collusion with the Rhegines......Page 239
Public meeting in Rhegium--Timoleon and the Carthaginians both present at it--long speeches, during which Timoleon steals away, contriving to send his fleet over to Sicily......Page 240
Timoleon at Tauromenium in Sicily--formidable strength of his. enemies--despots in Sicily--despondency at Syracuse......Page 242
Success of Timoleon at Adranum. He surprises and defeats the troops of Hiketas, superior in number......Page 243
Improved position and alliances of Timoleon--he marches up to the walls of Syracuse......Page 245
Position of Dionysius in Ortygia--he resolves to surrender that fortress to Timoleon, stipulating for safe conveyance and shelter at Corinth......Page 246
Timoleon sends troops to occupy Ortygia, receiving Dionysius into his camp......Page 248
Timoleon sends news of his success to Corinth, with Dionysius himself in a trireme......Page 249
Sight of the fallen Dionysius at Corinth--impression made upon the Greeks--numerous visitors to see him. Conversation with Aristoxenus......Page 250
Immense advantage derived by Timoleon from the possession of Ortygia--numerous stores found in it......Page 254
Large Carthaginian army under Magon arrives to aid in attacking Ortygia. Defeated by Neon, during the absence of Magon and Hiketas. Neon acquires Achradina, and joins it by a line of wall to Ortygia......Page 255
Return of Timoleon to Syracuse--fortunate march and arrival of the Corinthian reinforcement......Page 257
Messênê declares in favour of Timoleon--he establishes his camp near Syracuse......Page 258
Magon distrusts Hiketas and his position at Syracuse--he suddenly withdraws his army and fleet, leaving Syracuse altogether......Page 259
Timoleon masters Epipolæ and the whole city of Syracuse--Hiketas is obliged to escape to Leontini......Page 261
Languid defence made by the troops of Hiketas......Page 262
Extraordinary admiration felt towards Timoleon--especially for the distinguished favour shown to him by the gods......Page 263
Timoleon ascribes all his successes to the gods......Page 265
Temptations to Timoleon in the hour of success--easy possibility of making himself despot of Syracuse......Page 266
Timoleon invites the Syracusans to demolish the Dionysian stronghold in Ortygia......Page 268
He erects courts of justice on the site......Page 269
Desolate condition of Syracuse and other cities in Sicily. Recall of exiles. Application on the part of Timoleon and the Syracusans to Corinth......Page 270
Commissioners sent from Corinth to Syracuse--they revive the laws and democracy enacted by Dioklês--but with various changes and additions......Page 271
Large body of new colonists assembled at Corinth for Sicily......Page 272
Relief to the poverty of Syracuse......Page 274
Hiketas invites the Carthaginians again to invade Sicily......Page 276
The Carthaginians land in Sicily with a vast army, including a large proportion of native troops......Page 277
Timoleon marches from Syracuse against the Carthaginians--mutiny of a portion of his mercenaries under Thrasius......Page 278
Timoleon marches into the Carthaginian province--omen about the parsley......Page 280
He encounters the Carthaginian army while passing the Krimêsus. War chariots in their front--Timoleon orders his cavalry to charge......Page 281
Strenuous battle between the infantry of Timoleon and the native Carthaginian infantry. Terrible storm--complete victory of Timoleon......Page 283
Severe loss of the Carthaginians in the battle, especially of their native troops. Booty collected by the soldiers of Timoleon......Page 285
Discouragement and terror among the defeated army as well as at Carthage itself......Page 286
Great increase of glory to Timoleon--favour of the gods shown to him in the battle......Page 287
Success of Timoleon against Hiketas and Mamerkus......Page 289
Victory gained by Timoleon over Hiketas, at the river Damurius......Page 291
Timoleon attacks Hiketas at Leontini. The place (with Hiketas in person) is surrendered to Timoleon by the garrison. Hiketas and his family are put to death......Page 292
Timoleon gains a victory over Mamerkus--he concludes peace with the Carthaginians......Page 293
Timoleon conquers and takes prisoners Mamerkus and Hippon. Mamerkus is condemned by the Syracusan public assembly......Page 294
Timoleon puts down all the despots in Sicily......Page 295
Timoleon lays down his power at Syracuse......Page 296
Great influence of Timoleon, even after he had laid down his power......Page 297
Immigration of new Greek settlers into Sicily, to Gela, Agrigentum, Kamarina, &c.......Page 299
Value and importance of the moral ascendency enjoyed by Timoleon, in regulating these new settlements......Page 300
Numerous difficulties which he would be called upon to adjust......Page 301
Residence of Timoleon at Syracuse--chapel to the goddess Automatia......Page 303
Arrival of the blind Timoleon in the public assembly of Syracuse, during matters of grave and critical discussion......Page 304
Manner in which Timoleon bore contradiction in the public assembly--his earnest anxiety to ensure freedom of speech against himself......Page 305
Uncorrupted moderation and public spirit of Timoleon......Page 307
Freedom and comfort diffused throughout all Sicily for twentyfour years, until the despotism of Agathokles......Page 308
Death and obsequies of Timoleon......Page 309
Proclamation at his funeral--monument to his honour......Page 310
Contrast of Dion and Timoleon......Page 311
Central Greece resumed......Page 314
State of Central Greece in 360--359 B.C. Degradation of Sparta......Page 315
Megalopolis--Messênê--their fear of Sparta--no central action in Peloponnesus......Page 316
Comparatively good condition of Athens......Page 317
Power of Thebes......Page 318
Extinction of the free cities of Boeotia by the Thebans--repugnant to Grecian feeling......Page 320
Thessaly--despots of Pheræ......Page 321
Alexander of Pheræ--his cruelties--his assassination......Page 322
Tisiphonus despot at Pheræ--loss of power in the Pheræan dynasty......Page 325
Macedon--reign and death of Perdikkas......Page 326
Philip as a youth at Thebes--ideas there acquired--foundation laid of his future military ability......Page 329
Condition of Philip at the death of Perdikkas......Page 331
Macedonian government......Page 332
He evacuates Amphipolis. He defeats Argæus and the Athenians--his mild treatment of Athenian prisoners......Page 335
Philip makes peace with Athens--renounces his claim to Amphipolis......Page 336
Victories of Philip over the Pæonians and Illyrians......Page 337
Amphipolis evacuated by Philip--the Athenians neglect it......Page 339
State of Euboea--the Thebans foment revolt and attack the island--victorious efforts of Athens......Page 341
Surrender of the Chersonese to Athens......Page 344
Causes of the Social War--conduct of the Athenians--Synod at Athens......Page 345
Athens acts more for her own separate interests, and less for that of her allies--her armaments on service--badly paid mercenaries--their extortions......Page 346
The four cities declare themselves independent of Athens--interference of the Karian Mausôlus......Page 348
Great force of the revolters--armament despatched by Athens against Chios--battle at Chios--repulse of the Athenians, and death of Chabrias......Page 350
Farther armaments of Athens--Iphikrates, Timotheus, and Chares--unsuccessful operations in the Hellespont, and quarrel between the generals......Page 351
Iphikrates and Timotheus are accused by Chares at Athens......Page 353
Arrogance and unpopularity of Timotheus, attested by his friend Isokrates......Page 355
Iphikrates no more employed--great loss to Athens in these two generals......Page 358
Expedition of Chares--Athens makes peace with her revolted allies, recognising their full autonomy......Page 359
Renewed action of Philip. He lays siege to Amphipolis......Page 361
The Amphipolitans send to ask assistance from Athens--manoeuvres of Philip to induce Athens not to interfere......Page 362
The Athenians determine not to assist Amphipolis--their motives--importance of this resolution......Page 364
Capture of Amphipolis by Philip, through the treason of a party in the town......Page 365
Philip amuses the Athenians with false assurances--he induces them to reject advances from the Olynthians--proposed exchange of Pydna for Amphipolis......Page 366
Philip acts in a hostile manner against Athens--he conquers Pydna and Potidæa--gives Potidæa to the Olynthians--remissness of the Athenians......Page 367
Increase of the power of Philip--he founds Philippi, opens gold mines near Mount Pangæus, and derives large revenues from them......Page 371
Marriage of Philip with Olympias--birth of Alexander the Great......Page 372
Causes of the Sacred War--the Amphiktyonic assembly......Page 374
Political complaint brought before the assembly, first by Thebes against Sparta......Page 375
Next, by Thebes against the Phokians. The Phokians are condemned and heavily fined......Page 377
The assembly pass a vote consecrating the Phokian territory to Apollo......Page 378
Resolution of the Phokians to resist--Philomelus their leader......Page 379
Question of right raised as to the presidency of the temple--old right of the Phokians against that of the Delphians and the Amphiktyons......Page 380
Active measures taken by Philomelus. He goes to Sparta--obtains aid from king Archidamus. He seizes Delphi--defeats the Lokrians......Page 382
Philomelus fortifies the temple--levies numerous mercenaries--tries to conciliate Grecian sentiment. The Grecian world divided......Page 384
Philomelus tries to retain the prophetic agency--conduct of the Pythia......Page 386
Battles of Philomelus against the Lokrians--his success......Page 387
Exertions of the Thebans to raise a confederacy against the Phokians......Page 388
Danger of the Phokians--they take part of the treasures of the temple, in order to pay a mercenary force......Page 389
Numerous mercenaries employed by the Phokians--violence and ferocity of the war--defeat and death of Philomelus......Page 391
Onomarchus general of the Phokians--he renews the war--his power by means of the mercenaries......Page 392
Violent measures of Onomarchus--he employs the treasures of the temple to scatter bribes through the various cities......Page 393
Successes of Onomarchus--he advances as far as Thermopylæ--he invades Boeotia--is repulsed by the Thebans......Page 395
Conquest of Sestos by Chares and the Athenians......Page 396
Intrigues of Kersobleptes against Athens--he is compelled to cede to her his portion of the Chersonese--Athenian settlers sent thither, as well as to Samos......Page 397
Activity and constant progress of Philip--he conquers Methônê--remissness of Athens......Page 398
Philip marches into Thessaly against the despots of Pheræ......Page 401
Great power of Onomarchus and the Phokians--plans of Athens and Sparta--the Spartans contemplate hostilities against Megalopolis......Page 402
First appearance of Demosthenes as a public adviser in the Athenian assembly......Page 403
Parentage and early youth of Demosthenes--wealth of his father--dishonesty of his guardians......Page 404
Youth of Demosthenes--sickly and feeble constitution--want of physical education and bodily vigour......Page 407
Training of Demosthenes for a speaker--his instructors--Isæus--Plato--his devoted study of Thucydides......Page 410
Indefatigable efforts of Demosthenes to surmount his natural defects as a speaker......Page 411
Value set by Demosthenes upon action in oratory. His mind and thoughts--how formed......Page 414
He becomes first known as a logographer or composer of speeches for litigants......Page 415
Phokion--his antithesis and rivalry with Demosthenes--his character and position--his bravery and integrity......Page 416
Lasting hold acquired by his integrity on the public of Athens. Number of times that he was elected general......Page 417
His manner of speaking--effective brevity--contempt of oratory......Page 419
His frankness--his contempt of the Athenian people--his imperturbability--his repulsive manners......Page 420
Phokion and Eubulus the leaders of the peace-party, which represented the strongly predominant sentiment at Athens......Page 421
Influence of Phokion mischievous during the reign of Philip--at that time Athens might have prevailed over Macedonia......Page 423
Change in the military spirit of Greece since the Peloponnesian war. Decline of the citizen soldiership: increased spread of mercenary troops. Contrast between the Periklean and the Demosthenic citizen......Page 425
Multiplication of mercenary soldiers--its mischievous consequences--necessity of providing emigration......Page 427
Deterioration of the Grecian military force occurred at the same time with the great development of the Macedonian force......Page 430
Rudeness and poverty of the Macedonians--excellent material for soldiers--organising genius of Philip......Page 431
First parliamentary harangue of Demosthenes--on the Symmories--alarm felt about Persia......Page 433
Positive recommendations in the speech--mature thought and sagacity which they imply......Page 436
His proposed preparation and scheme for extending the basis of the Symmories......Page 438
Spirit of the Demosthenic exhortations--always impressing the necessity of personal effort and sacrifice as conditions of success......Page 439
Affairs of Peloponnesus--projects of Sparta against Megalopolis--her attempt to obtain cooperation from Athens......Page 440
Views and recommendations of Demosthenes--he advises that Athens shall uphold Messênê and Megalopolis......Page 441
Philip in Thessaly--he attacks Lykophron of Pheræ, who calls in Onomarchus and the Phokians--Onomarchus defeats Philip......Page 443
Successes of Onomarchus in Boeotia--maximum of the Phokian power......Page 444
Philip repairs his forces and marches again into Thessaly--his complete victory over the Phokians--Onomarchus is slain......Page 445
Philip conquers Pheræ and Pagasæ--becomes master of all Thessaly--expulsion of Lykophron......Page 446
Philip invades Thermopylæ--the Athenians send a force thither and arrest his progress. Their alarm at this juncture, and unusual rapidity of movement......Page 448
Phayllus takes the command of the Phokians--third spoliation of the temple--revived strength of the Phokians--malversation of the leaders......Page 450
War in Peloponnesus--the Spartans attack Megalopolis--interference of Thebes......Page 453
Hostilities with indecisive result--peace concluded--autonomy of Megalopolis again recognised......Page 454
The Thebans obtain money from the Persian king......Page 456
Increased power and formidable attitude of Philip. Alarm which he now begins to inspire throughout the Grecian world......Page 457
Philip acquires a considerable navy--importance of the Gulf of Pagasæ to him--his flying squadrons annoy the Athenian commerce and coast......Page 459
Philip carries on war in Thrace--his intrigues among the Thracian princes......Page 462
He besieges Heræon Teichos: alarm at Athens: a decree is passed to send out a fleet: Philip falls sick: the fleet is not sent......Page 463
Languor of the Athenians--the principal peace-leaders, Eubulus, Phokion, &c., propose nothing energetic against Philip--Demosthenes undertakes the duty......Page 465
First Philippic of Demosthenes, 352--351 B.C.......Page 466
Remarks and recommendations of the first Philippic. Severe comments on the past apathy of the people......Page 469
He insists on the necessity that citizens shall serve in person, and proposes the formation of an acting fleet and armament......Page 470
His financial propositions......Page 472
Mischiefs of the past negligence and want of preparation--harm done by the mercenary unpaid armaments, serving without citizens......Page 473
Characteristics of the first Philippic--prudent advice and early warnings of Demosthenes......Page 475
Opponents of Demosthenes at Athens--speakers in the pay of Philip--alarm about the Persian king still continues......Page 478
Change of sentiments at Olynthus--the Olynthians afraid of Philip--they make peace with Athens......Page 481
Unfriendly feelings of Philip towards Olynthus--ripening into war in 350 B.C.......Page 482
Intrigues of Philip in Olynthus--his means of corruption and of fomenting intestine discord......Page 484
Conquest and destruction of the Olynthian confederate towns by Philip, between 350--347 B.C.--terrible phænomena......Page 487
Philip attacks the Olynthians and Chalkidians--beginning of the Olynthian war--350 B.C.......Page 489
The Olynthians conclude alliance with Athens......Page 490
The Athenians contract alliance with Olynthus--earliest Olynthiac speech of Demosthenes......Page 491
The Second Olynthiac is the earliest--its tone and tenor......Page 492
Disposition to magnify the practical effect of the speeches of Demosthenes--his true position--he is an opposition speaker......Page 495
Philip continues to press the Olynthian confederacy--increasing danger of Olynthus--fresh applications to Athens......Page 497
Demosthenes delivers another Orynthiac oration--that which stands first in the printed order. Its tenor......Page 498
Just appreciation of the situation by Demosthenes. He approaches the question of the Theôric Fund......Page 501
Assistance sent by Athens to Olynthus. Partial success against Philip......Page 502
Partial and exaggerated confidence at Athens. The Athenians lose sight of the danger of Olynthus. Third Olynthiac of Demosthenes......Page 503
Tenor and substance of the third Olynthiac......Page 505
Courage of Demosthenes in combating the prevalent sentiment......Page 507
Intrigues of Philip in Euboea......Page 508
Plutarch of Eretria asks aid from Athens. Aid is sent to him under Phokion, though Demosthenes dissuades it......Page 509
Treachery of Plutarch--danger of Phokion and the Athenians in Euboea--victory of Phokion at Tamynæ......Page 511
Dionysiac festival at Athens in March, 349 B.C.--Insult offered to Demosthenes by Meidias......Page 513
Reproaches against Demosthenes for having been absent from the battle of Tamynæ--he goes over on service to Euboea as a hoplite--he is named senator for 349--348 B.C.......Page 514
Hostilities in Euboea, during 349--348 B.C.......Page 516
Great efforts of Athens in 349 B.C. for the support of Olynthus and the maintenance of Euboea at the same time......Page 518
Financial embarrassments of Athens. Motion of Apollodorus about the Theôric Fund. The assembly appropriate the surplus of revenue to military purposes--Apollodorus is indicted and fined......Page 519
The diversion of the Theôric Fund proves the great anxiety of the moment at Athens......Page 521
Three expeditions sent by Athens to Chalkidikê in 349--348 B.C.--according to Philochorus......Page 522
Final success of Philip--capture of the Chalkidic towns and of Olynthus......Page 523
Sale of the Olynthian prisoners--ruin of the Greek cities in Chalkidikê......Page 524
Cost incurred by Athens in the Olynthian war......Page 526
Views respecting the Theôric Fund......Page 527
It was the general fund of Athens for religious festivals and worship--distributions were one part of it--character of the ancient religious festivals......Page 528
No other branch of the Athenian peace-establishment was impoverished or sacrificed to the Theôric expenditure......Page 529
The annual surplus might have been accumulated as a war-fund--how far Athens is blameable for not having done so......Page 530
Attempt of the Athenian property-classes to get clear of direct taxation by taking from the Theôric Fund......Page 531
Conflict of these two feelings at Athens. Demosthenes tries to mediate between them--calls for sacrifices from all, especially personal military service......Page 533
Appendix......Page 534
Sufferings of the Olynthians and Chalkidians--triumph and festival of Philip......Page 540
Effect produced at Athens by the capture of Olynthus--especially by the number of Athenian captives taken in it......Page 542
Increased importance of Æschines......Page 543
Æschines as envoy of Athens in Arcadia......Page 545
Increasing despondency and desire for peace at Athens......Page 546
Indirect overtures for peace between Athens and Philip, even before the fall of Olynthus--the Euboeans--Phrynon, &c.......Page 547
First proposition of Philokrates--granting permission to Philip to send envoys to Athens......Page 549
Effect produced upon the minds of the Athenians by their numerous captive citizens taken by Philip at Olynthus......Page 551
Mission of the actor Aristodemus from the Athenians to Philip, on the subject of the captives. Favourable dispositions reported from Philip......Page 553
Course of the Sacred War--gradual decline and impoverishment of the Phokians. Dissensions among themselves......Page 554
The Thebans invoke the aid of Philip to put down the Phokians......Page 555
Alarm among the Phokians--one of the Phokian parties invites the Athenians to occupy Thermopylæ--Phalækus repels them......Page 556
Increased embarrassment at Athens--uncertainty about Phalækus and the pass of Thermopylæ......Page 558
The defence of Greece now turned on Thermopylæ--importance of that pass both to Philip and to Athens......Page 559
Motion of Philokrates in the Athenian assembly--to send envoys to Philip for peace......Page 561
Ten Athenian envoys sent--Demosthenes and Æschines among them......Page 562
Journey of the envoys to Pella......Page 563
Statements of Æschines about the conduct of Demosthenes--arrangements of the envoys for speaking before Philip......Page 564
Answer of Philip--return of the envoys......Page 565
Review of Æschines and his conduct, as stated by himself......Page 567
Philip offers peace on the terms of uti possidetis--report made by the Athenian envoys on their return......Page 569
Proceedings in the Athenian assembly after the return of the envoys--motions of Demosthenes......Page 571
Arrival of the Macedonian envoys at Athens--days fixed for discussing the peace......Page 572
Resolution taken by the synod of allies at Athens......Page 573
Assemblies held to discuss the peace, in presence of the Macedonian envoys......Page 576
Part taken by Æschines and Demosthenes--in reference to this motion. Contradictions between them......Page 577
Æschines supported the motion of Philokrates altogether--Demosthenes supported it also, except as to the exclusion of the Phokians--language of Eubulus......Page 581
Motion of Philokrates carried in the assembly, for peace and alliance with Philip......Page 582
Question, Who were to be received as allies of Athens?--about the Phokians and Kersobleptes......Page 584
The envoy of Kersobleptes is admitted, both by the Athenian assembly and by the Macedonian envoys......Page 585
Difficulty of Philokrates and Æschines. Their false assurances about the secret good intentions of Philip towards the Phokians......Page 586
The Phokians are tacitly excluded--the Athenians and their allies swear to the peace without them......Page 587
Ruinous mistake--false step of Athens in abandoning the Phokians--Demosthenes did not protest against it at the time......Page 588
The oaths are taken before Antipater, leaving out the Phokians......Page 590
Second embassy from Athens to Philip......Page 591
Demosthenes urges the envoys to go immediately to Thrace in order to administer the oath to Philip--they refuse--their delay on the journey and at Pella......Page 593
Philip completes his conquest of Thrace during the interval......Page 594
Embassies from many Grecian states at Pella......Page 595
The envoys address Philip--harangue of Æschines......Page 596
Position of Demosthenes in this second embassy......Page 598
March of Philip to Thermopylæ--he masks his purposes, holding out delusive hopes to the Phokians. Intrigues to gain his favour......Page 599
The envoys administer the oaths to Philip at Pheræ, the last thing before their departure. They return to Athens......Page 602
Plans of Philip on Thermopylæ--corrupt connivance of the Athenianenvoys--letter from Philip which they brought back to Athens......Page 603
Æschines and the envoys proclaim the Phokians to be excluded from the oaths with Philip--protest of Demosthenes in the Senate, on arriving at Athens, against the behaviour of his colleagues--vote of the Senate approving his protest......Page 604
Public assembly at Athens--successful address made to it by Æschines--his false assurances to the people......Page 606
The Athenian people believe the promises of Philokrates and Æschines--protest of Demosthenes not listened to......Page 609
Letter of Philip favourably received by the assembly--motion of Philokrates carried, decreeing peace and alliance with him for ever. Resolution to compel the Phokians to give up Delphi......Page 610
Letters of Philip to the Athenians, inviting them to send forces to join him at Thermopylæ--policy of these letters--the Athenians do nothing......Page 611
Phokian envoys heard these debates at Athens--position of Phalækus at Thermopylæ......Page 613
Dependence of the Phokians upon Athenian aid to hold Thermopylæ......Page 614
News received at Thermopylæ of the determination of Athens against the Phokians......Page 616
All the towns in Phokis surrender at discretion to Philip, who declares his full concurrence with the Thebans......Page 617
Third embassy sent by the Athenians to Philip--the envoys return without seeing him, on hearing of the Phokian convention......Page 618
Alarm and displeasure at Athens--motion of Kallisthenes for putting the city in a good state of defence......Page 619
Æschines and other Athenian envoys visit Philip in Phokis--triumphant celebration of Philip's success......Page 620
Fair professions of Philip to the Athenians, after his conquest of Thermopylæ: language of his partisans at Athens......Page 621
The Amphiktyonic assembly is convoked anew. Rigorous sentence against the Phokians. They are excluded from the assembly, and Philip is admitted in their place......Page 623
Ruin and wretchedness of the Phokians......Page 624
Irresistible ascendency of Philip. He is named by the Amphiktyons presiding celebrator of the Pythian festival of 346 B.C.......Page 626
Demosthenes and Æschines--proof of dishonesty and fraud in Æschines, even from his own admissions......Page 628
This disgraceful peace was brought upon Athens by the corruption of her own envoys......Page 632
Impeachment and condemnation of Philokrates......Page 633
Miserable death of all concerned in the spoliation of the Delphian temple......Page 634
Position of Philip after the conclusion of the Sacred War......Page 636
Sentiments of Demosthenes--he recommends acquiescence in the peace, and recognition of the new Amphiktyonic dignity of Philip......Page 637
Sentiments of Isokrates--his letter to Philip--his abnegation of free Hellenism......Page 638
Position of the Persian king Ochus--his measures against revolters in Phenicia and Egypt......Page 640
Reconquest of Phenicia by Ochus--perfidy of the Sidonian prince Tennes......Page 641
Reconquest of Egypt by the Persian force under Mentor and Bagôas......Page 643
Power of Mentor as Persian viceroy of the Asiatic coast--he seizes Hermeias of Atarneus......Page 644
Peace between Philip and the Athenians, continued without formal renunciation from 346--340 B.C.......Page 646
Movements and intrigues of Philip everywhere throughout Greece......Page 647
Vigilance and renewed warnings of Demosthenes against Philip......Page 649
Mission of Python to Athens by Philip--amendments proposed in the recent peace--fruitless discussions upon them......Page 651
Dispute about Halonnesus......Page 653
The Athenians refuse to accept cession of Halonnesus as a favour, claiming restitution of it as their right......Page 654
Halonnesus taken and retaken--reprisals between Philip and the Athenians......Page 655
Movements of the philippising factions at Megara--at Oreus--at Eretria......Page 656
Philip in Thrace--disputes about the Bosphorus and Hellespont--Diopeithes commander for Athens in the Chersonese. Philip takes part with the Kardians against Athens. Hostile collisions and complaints against Diopeithes......Page 658
Accusations against Diopeithes at Athens by the philippising orators--Demosthenes defends him--speech on the Chersonese, and third Philippic......Page 659
Increased influence of Demosthenes at Athens--Athenian expedition sent, upon his motion, to Euboea--Oreus and Eretria are liberated, and Euboea is detached from Philip......Page 660
Mission of Demosthenes to the Chersonese and Byzantium--his important services in detaching the Byzantines from Philip, and bringing them into alliance with Athens......Page 662
Philip commences the siege of Perinthus--he marches through the Chersonesus--declaration of war by Athens against him......Page 664
Manifesto of Philip, declaring war against Athens......Page 665
Complaints of Philip against the Athenians--his policy towards Athens--his lecture on the advantages of peace......Page 668
Siege of Perinthus by Philip. His numerous engines for siege--great scale of operations. Obstinacy of the defence. The town is relieved by the Byzantines, and by Grecian mercenaries from the Persian satraps......Page 669
Philip attacks Byzantium--danger of the place--it is relieved by the fleets of Athens, Chios, Rhodes, &c. Success of the Athenian fleet in the Propontis under Phokion. Philip abandons the sieges both of Perinthus and Byzantium......Page 671
Votes of thanks from Byzantium and the Chersonesus to Athens for her aid--honours and compliments to Demosthenes......Page 672
Philip withdraws from Byzantium, concludes peace with the Byzantines, Chians and others, and attacks the Scythians. He is defeated by the Triballi, and wounded, on his return......Page 673
Important reform effected by Demosthenes in the administration of the Athenian marine......Page 674
Abuses which had crept into the trierarchy--unfair apportionment of the burthen--undue exemption which the rich administrators had acquired for themselves......Page 675
Individual hardship, and bad public consequences, occasioned by these inequalities......Page 676
His new reform distributes the burthen of trierarchy equitably......Page 678
Its complete success. Improved efficiency of the naval armaments under it......Page 680
Kirrha and its plain near Delphi consecrated to Apollo, in the first Sacred War under Solon......Page 681
Necessity of a port at Kirrha, for the convenience of visitors to Delphi. Kirrha grows up again, and comes into the occupation of the Lokrians of Amphissa......Page 683
Relations between the Lokrians of Amphissa and Delphi--they had stood forward earnestly in the former Sacred War to defend Delphi against the Phokians......Page 684
Language of an Amphissian speaker among the Amphiktyons against Athens--new dedication of an old Athenian donative in the temple......Page 685
Speech of Æschines in the Amphiktyonic assembly......Page 687
Passion and tumult excited by his speech......Page 689
Violent resolution adopted by the Amphiktyons......Page 690
The Amphiktyons with the Delphian multitude march down to destroy Kirrha--interference of the Amphissians to rescue their property. They drive off the Amphiktyons......Page 691
Unjust violence of the Amphiktyons--public mischief done by Æschines......Page 693
Effect of the proceeding of Æschines at Athens. Opposition of Demosthenes, at first fruitless......Page 695
Change of feeling at Athens--the Athenians resolve to take no part in the Amphiktyonic proceedings against Amphissa......Page 696
Special meeting of the Amphiktyons at Thermopylæ, held without Athens. Vote passed to levy a force for punishing Amphissa. Kottyphus president......Page 698
The Amphiktyons invoke the intervention of Philip......Page 699
Motives which dictated the vote--dependence of most of the Amphiktyonic voters upon Philip......Page 701
Philip enters Phokis--he suddenly occupies, and begins to re-fortify, Elateia......Page 702
He sends an embassy to Thebes, announcing his intention to attack Attica, and asking either aid, or a free passage for his own army......Page 703
Unfriendly relations subsisting between Athens and Thebes. Hopes of Philip that Thebes would act in concert with him against Athens......Page 704
Great alarm at Athens, when the news arrived that Philip was fortifying Elateia......Page 705
Athenian public assembly held--general anxiety and silence--no one will speak but Demosthenes......Page 706
Advice of Demosthenes to despatch an embassy immediately to Thebes, and to offer alliance on the most liberal terms......Page 707
The advice of Demosthenes is adopted--he is despatched with other envoys to Thebes......Page 708
Divided state of feeling at Thebes--influence of the philippising party--effect produced by the Macedonian envoys......Page 711
Efficient and successful oratory of Demosthenes--he persuades the Thebans to contract alliance with Athens against Philip......Page 712
The Athenian army marches by invitation to Thebes--cordial cooperation of the Thebans and Athenians......Page 713
Vigorous resolutions taken at Athens--continuance of the new docks suspended--the Theôric Fund is devoted to military purposes......Page 714
Disappointment of Philip--he remains in Phokis, and writes to his Peloponnesian allies to come and join him against Amphissa......Page 715
The Athenians and Thebans reconstitute the Phokians and their towns......Page 716
War against Philip in Phokis--great influence of Demosthenes--auxiliaries which he procured......Page 718
Increased efforts of Philip in Phokis......Page 720
Successes of Philip--he defeats a large body of mercenary troops--he takes Amphissa......Page 721
No eminent general on the side of the Greeks--Demosthenes keeps up the spirits of the allies, and holds them together......Page 722
Battle of Chæroneia--complete victory of Philip......Page 725
Macedonian phalanx--its long pikes--superior in front charge to the Grecian hoplites......Page 726
Loss at the battle of Chæroneia......Page 727
Distress and alarm at Athens on the news of the defeat......Page 728
Resolutions taken at Athens for energetic defence. Respect and confidence shown to Demosthenes......Page 729
Effect produced upon some of the islanders in the Ægean by the defeat--conduct of the Rhodians......Page 731
Conduct of Philip after the victory--harshness towards Thebes--greater lenity to Athens......Page 732
Conduct of Æschines--Demades is sent as envoy to Philip......Page 733
Peace of Demades, concluded between Philip and the Athenians. The Athenians are compelled to recognise him as chief of the Hellenic world......Page 735
Remarks of Polybius on the Demadean peace--means of resistance still possessed by Athens......Page 736
Honorary votes passed at Athens to Philip......Page 737
Impeachment brought against Demosthenes at Athens--the Athenians stand by him......Page 738
Expedition of Philip into Peloponnesus. He invades Laconia......Page 739
Congress held at Corinth. Philip is chosen chief of the Greeks against Persia......Page 740
Mortification to Athenian feelings--degraded position of Athens and of Greece. No genuine feeling in Greece now, towards war against Persia......Page 741
Preparations of Philip for the invasion of Persia......Page 742
Philip repudiates Olympias at the instance of his recently married wife, Kleopatra--resentment of Olympias and Alexander--dissension at court......Page 743
Great festival in Macedonia--celebrating the birth of a son to Philip by Kleopatra, and the marriage of his daughter with Alexander of Epirus......Page 744
Pausanias--outrage inflicted upon him--his resentment against Philip, encouraged by the partisans of Olympias and Alexander......Page 746
Assassination of Philip by Pausanias, who is slain by the guards......Page 747
Accomplices of Pausanias......Page 748
Alexander the Great is declared king--first notice given to him by the Lynkestian Alexander, one of the conspirators--Attalus and queen Kleopatra, with her infant son, are put to death......Page 749
Character of Philip......Page 751