A geologic time scale 2004

Cover......Page 1
Half-title......Page 3
Title......Page 5
Copyright......Page 6
Dedication......Page 7
Contents......Page 11
Contributors......Page 14
Preface......Page 17
Acknowledgments......Page 19
SYMBOLS......Page 21
Part I Introduction......Page 23
1.1 A GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 2004......Page 25
1.2 HOW THIS BOOK IS ARRANGED......Page 26
1.3 CONVENTIONS AND STANDARDS......Page 28
1.4.1 Arthur Holmes and age–thickness interpolations......Page 29
1.4.2 Phanerozoic radiometric databases, statistical scales, and compilations......Page 30
1.4.3 Paleozoic scales......Page 32
1.4.4 Mesozoic scales......Page 37
1.4.5 Cenozoic scales......Page 38
2.1 TIME AND ROCK......Page 42
2.2.2 Global boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)......Page 43
2.2.3 Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)......Page 48
2.2.4 Other considerations for choosing a GSSP......Page 49
2.2.5 Subdividing long stages......Page 62
2.2.6 Do GSSP boundary stratotypes simplify stratigraphic classification?......Page 63
2.3.3 Permian–Triassic boundary......Page 64
2.4.1 Archean and Proterozoic Eons (Precambrian)......Page 65
THE MESOZOIC ERA......Page 66
2.5 EXAMPLES OF STRATIGRAPHIC CHARTS AND TABLES......Page 67
Part II Concepts and methods......Page 69
3.2 GRAPHIC CORRELATION......Page 71
3.3 CONSTRAINED OPTIMIZATION......Page 73
3.4 RANKING AND SCALING......Page 74
4.2 EARTH’S ORBITAL PARAMETERS......Page 77
4.3 ORBITALLY FORCED INSOLATION......Page 79
4.4 ORBITAL SIGNALS IN CYCLE STRATIGRAPHY......Page 81
4.5 ESTIMATING ORBITAL CHRONOLOGIES......Page 83
5.1.1 Magnetic field reversals and magnetostratigraphy......Page 85
5.1.2 Polarity intervals, zones, and chrons......Page 86
5.2.1 C-sequence of marine magnetic anomalies and associated chron nomenclature......Page 87
5.2.2 Calibration and ages of the Late Cretaceous–Cenozoic geomagnetic polarity time scale......Page 95
5.3.2 Constructing a composite M-sequence......Page 96
ANOMALIES M25R (BASE-KIMMERIDGIAN) TO M41 (BATHONIAN)......Page 97
AGE CONSTRAINTS ON M-SEQUENCE SCALING......Page 106
SPREADING MODEL AND AGES OF M-SEQUENCE 5.4.1 Paleozoic to Middle Jurassic......Page 107
5.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 108
6.2.1 Decay constants, isotopic ratios, and comparison between 40Ar/39Ar and U–Pb systems......Page 109
6.3.1 U–Pb......Page 110
HIGH-RESOLUTION–SECONDARY ION MASS SPECTROMETRY (HR–SIMS)......Page 112
6.3.2 K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar......Page 113
40Ar/39Ar METHODS......Page 114
6.3.3 Other methods......Page 116
6.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 117
7.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 118
7.3 A GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE 2004 (GTS2004) DATABASE......Page 120
CONFIDENCE LIMITS ON THE LOWESS FIT......Page 122
7.4 COMMENTS ON THE LOWESS FIT......Page 124
8.1.1 Statistical estimation of chronostratigraphic boundary ages (with error bars)......Page 128
8.1.3 Spline-curve fitting with consideration of stratigraphic uncertainty......Page 129
8.1.4 General comments on straight-line fitting......Page 131
8.2.1 Straight-line fitting for Ordovician and Silurian ages......Page 132
8.2.2 Straight-line fitting for Devonian ages......Page 135
AVERAGE SQUARE OF SCALED RESIDUAL ADJUSTMENT......Page 136
8.2.3 Carboniferous–Permian......Page 137
8.2.4 Permian–Triassic boundary......Page 138
8.3.1 Late Cretaceous......Page 139
ADJUSTMENT TO ACCOUNT FOR EXTERNAL VARIABILITY OF LATE CRETACEOUS 40Ar/39Ar DATES......Page 141
TOTAL ADJUSTMENT AND 2-SIGMA ERROR BAR OF STAGE DURATION......Page 142
8.3.2 Paleogene time scale......Page 143
8.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 146
Part III Geologic periods......Page 149
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 151
9.2 HISTORY AND RECOMMENDED SUBDIVISION......Page 152
9.2.2 The Proterozoic Eon......Page 153
9.4 THE NEOPROTEROZOIC......Page 154
9.5 ISOTOPE STRATIGRAPHY IN THE PRECAMBRIAN......Page 155
9.5.1 Strontium isotope stratigraphy......Page 156
9.5.4 Sulfur isotope stratigraphy......Page 157
9.6 BIOSTRATIGRAPHY IN THE NEOPROTEROZOIC......Page 158
9.7 NEOPROTEROZOIC ICE AGES AND CHRONOMETRIC CONSTRAINTS......Page 161
9.8 SUMMARY......Page 162
10.2 CURRENT PRECAMBRIAN SUBDIVISIONS AND PROBLEMS......Page 163
10.3 A “NATURAL” PRECAMBRIAN TIME SCALE......Page 164
10.3.3 The Archean and “Transition” Eons......Page 167
10.4 CONCLUSIONS......Page 168
11.1 HISTORY AND SUBDIVISIONS......Page 169
BASE OF THE GLYPTAGNOSTUS RETICULATUS ZONE, BASE OF THE PAIBIAN STAGE, LOWERMOST FURONGIAN SERIES......Page 171
BASE OF THE TRIPLAGNOSTUS GIBBUS ZONE......Page 174
AUSTRALIAN CAMBRIAN STAGES......Page 175
NORTH AMERICAN CAMBRIAN STAGES......Page 177
11.2.3 Archaeocyathan zones......Page 179
11.2.6 Chemostratigraphy......Page 180
11.3 CAMBRIAN TIME SCALE......Page 181
11.3.1 Age of boundaries......Page 184
12.1 HISTORY AND SUBDIVISIONS......Page 187
CAMBRIAN–ORDOVICIAN BOUNDARY AND STAGE 1: THE TREMADOCIAN......Page 188
STAGE 4: THE DARRIWILIAN......Page 190
12.2 PREVIOUS STANDARD DIVISIONS......Page 191
12.2.5 Ashgill......Page 192
CONODONT ZONES......Page 193
12.3.2 Magnetostratigraphy......Page 196
12.3.4 Sr isotope stratigraphy......Page 197
12.4.1 Radiometric dates......Page 198
12.4.3 Calibration of stage boundaries by composite standard optimization......Page 199
12.4.4 Age of stage boundaries......Page 208
13.1 HISTORY AND SUBDIVISIONS......Page 210
TELYCHIAN......Page 211
SHEINWOODIAN......Page 213
13.1.5 Other important stage classifications......Page 214
CONODONT ZONES......Page 215
CHEMOSTRATIGRAPHY......Page 216
EUSTASY......Page 219
13.3.1 Radiometric dates......Page 220
13.3.2 Methods to estimate relative duration of zones and stages......Page 221
13.3.4 Age of stage boundaries......Page 222
14.1 HISTORY AND SUBDIVISIONS......Page 224
PRAGIAN......Page 225
EMSIAN......Page 228
FAMENNIAN......Page 229
SPORE AND ACRITARCH ZONATIONS......Page 230
VERTEBRATE ZONATIONS......Page 233
GEOCHEMISTRY......Page 234
14.3.1 Previous scales......Page 235
14.3.3 Age of stage boundaries......Page 237
ITEM E......Page 242
15.1 HISTORY AND SUBDIVISIONS......Page 244
15.1.1 Evolution of traditional European and Russian subdivisions......Page 245
DEVONIAN–CARBONIFEROUS BOUNDARY AND THE TOURNAISIAN STAGE......Page 250
SERPUKHOVIAN......Page 251
MISSISSIPPIAN–PENNSYLVANIAN BOUNDARY AND THE BASHKIRIAN STAGE......Page 252
MOSCOVIAN......Page 253
KASIMOVIAN......Page 254
BIOSTRATIGRAPHIC ZONATIONS OF AMMONOIDS, FORAMINIFERA, AND CONODONTS......Page 255
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY......Page 256
CHEMICAL STRATIGRAPHY: STABLE ISOTOPES OF Sr, O, AND C......Page 257
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY......Page 258
15.3.2 Radiometric data......Page 259
15.3.3 Carboniferous and Permian composite standard......Page 266
15.3.4 Age of stage boundaries......Page 269
16.1 HISTORY AND SUBDIVISIONS......Page 271
ASSELIAN......Page 272
KUNGURIAN......Page 275
CAPITANIAN......Page 276
WUCHIAPINGIAN......Page 277
16.2.3 Pamirs......Page 278
16.2.4 Salt Range......Page 281
16.2.6 West Texas......Page 282
GEOCHEMISTRY......Page 285
16.4.2 Radiometric age dates......Page 286
16.4.3 Age of stage boundaries......Page 292
17.1 HISTORY AND SUBDIVISIONS......Page 293
REDEFINING THE PALEOZOIC–MESOZOIC BOUNDARY......Page 298
OLENEKIAN......Page 299
LADINIAN......Page 300
CARNIAN......Page 301
17.2.1 Marine macrofossils......Page 302
AMMONOIDS......Page 305
PLANTS, POLLEN, AND SPORES......Page 306
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY......Page 307
CHEMICAL STRATIGRAPHY......Page 308
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY......Page 309
17.3.1 Base-Triassic to lower Ladinian......Page 310
17.3.2 Upper Ladinian to base-Jurassic......Page 327
17.3.4 Triassic time scale summary......Page 328
18.1.1 Overview of the Jurassic......Page 329
TRIASSIC–JURASSIC BOUNDARY AND THE HETTANGIAN STAGE......Page 330
SINEMURIAN......Page 331
PLIENSBACHIAN......Page 334
18.1.3 Middle Jurassic......Page 342
BATHONIAN......Page 343
CALLOVIAN......Page 344
OXFORDIAN......Page 345
KIMMERIDGIAN......Page 346
TITHONIAN......Page 347
18.2 JURASSIC STRATIGRAPHY......Page 348
DINOSAURS AND OTHER VERTEBRATES......Page 349
RADIOLARIA......Page 356
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY......Page 357
CHEMICAL STRATIGRAPHY......Page 358
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY......Page 360
18.3.1 Selection of radiometric ages......Page 361
18.3.3 Bajocian through Callovian......Page 362
18.3.5 Estimated uncertainties on stage ages and durations......Page 363
19.1.1 Overview of the Cretaceous......Page 366
19.1.2 Lower Cretaceous......Page 367
JURASSIC–CRETACEOUS BOUNDARY AND THE BERRIASIAN STAGE......Page 375
VALANGINIAN STAGE......Page 376
HAUTERIVIAN STAGE......Page 380
APTIAN STAGE......Page 381
ALBIAN STAGE......Page 382
CENOMANIAN STAGE......Page 384
CONIACIAN STAGE......Page 385
MAASTRICHTIAN STAGE......Page 386
19.2 CRETACEOUS STRATIGRAPHY......Page 387
CALPIONELLIDS AND FORAMINIFERA......Page 388
MAGNETOSTRATIGRAPHY......Page 389
CHEMICAL STRATIGRAPHY......Page 390
CYCLE STRATIGRAPHY AND ESTIMATES OF STAGE DURATIONS......Page 391
OTHER MAJOR STRATIGRAPHIC EVENTS......Page 392
19.3.1 Berriasian through Barremian......Page 393
SCALING OF THE APTIAN AND ALBIAN......Page 402
19.3.4 Estimated uncertainties on stage ages and durations......Page 403
19.3.5 Summary of Cretaceous time scale......Page 405
20.1.1 Overview of the Paleogene......Page 406
THANETIAN......Page 409
20.1.6 Eocene–Oligocene boundary......Page 410
20.2 PALEOGENE BIOSTRATIGRAPHY......Page 411
LARGER (BENTHIC) FORAMINIFERA......Page 412
SMALLER BENTHIC FORAMINIFERA......Page 414
DEVELOPMENT OF ZONATIONS......Page 415
20.2.3 Radiolaria......Page 416
20.2.5 Mammals......Page 419
20.3.2 Chemical stratigraphy......Page 423
20.4.1 Radiometric ages......Page 425
20.4.2 Age and duration of stages......Page 428
20.4.3 Future development of the Paleogene time scale......Page 429
APPENDIX......Page 430
21.1.1 Defining the Neogene Period......Page 431
AQUITANIAN: LOWER MIOCENE......Page 434
LANGHIAN: MIDDLE MIOCENE......Page 435
TORTONIAN: UPPER MIOCENE......Page 436
21.1.3 The Pliocene Series......Page 437
PIACENZIAN: MIDDLE PLIOCENE......Page 438
BASE OF THE PLEISTOCENE SERIES......Page 439
THE LOWER–MIDDLE PLEISTOCENE BOUNDARY......Page 440
VERTEBRATES......Page 441
FORAMINIFERA......Page 442
DIATOMS AND RADIOLARIA......Page 443
DINOFLAGELLATES......Page 444
SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY......Page 446
TEKTITES......Page 447
87Sr/86Sr......Page 448
OXYGEN ISOTOPES (Delta18O)......Page 449
DANSGAARD–OESCHER CYCLES AND HEINRICH EVENTS......Page 451
21.3.1 Introduction......Page 452
21.3.2 New data......Page 454
21.3.3 The La2003 solution......Page 455
21.3.5 The age of the Paleogene–Neogene boundary......Page 456
21.3.7 Incorporation of zonal schemes......Page 457
21.3.8 Advantages of the new time scale......Page 460
21.3.9 Summary......Page 461
22.1.2 The Pliocene–Pleistocene boundary and the status of the Quaternary......Page 463
22.1.3 Division of the Pleistocene......Page 464
22.2 TERRESTRIAL SEQUENCES......Page 465
22.3 OCEAN SEDIMENT SEQUENCES......Page 470
22.4 LAND–SEA CORRELATION......Page 471
22.6 HOLOCENE SERIES......Page 473
Part IV Summary......Page 475
23.1.1 The components of GTS2004......Page 477
23.1.2 Calibration methods to linear time used in GTS2004......Page 482
23.2 FUTURE TRENDS IN GEOLOGIC TIME SCALES......Page 484
Appendix 1 Recommended color coding of stages......Page 487
Appendix 2 Orbital tuning calibrations and conversions for the Neogene Period......Page 491
A. 3.1 MATHEMATICS OF METHODS USED FOR FINAL STRAIGHT-LINE FITTING......Page 507
Bibliography......Page 509
Stratigraphic Index......Page 609
General Index......Page 611